{"data":[{"all_awardings":[],"approved_at_utc":null,"approved_by":null,"archived":false,"associated_award":null,"author":"iwannaddr2afi","author_flair_background_color":null,"author_flair_css_class":null,"author_flair_richtext":[],"author_flair_template_id":null,"author_flair_text":null,"author_flair_text_color":null,"author_flair_type":"text","author_fullname":"t2_b6kdc","author_is_blocked":false,"author_patreon_flair":false,"author_premium":false,"awarders":[],"banned_at_utc":null,"banned_by":null,"body":"This answer is going to sound fringe for this sub due to it being the science around an old folk remedy lol but you will find it's based on sound research via the sources.\n\nThere's a medieval garlic and onion treatment involving wine and bile salts (the remedy is known as Bald\u2019s eyesalve) which was starting to be studied about 10 years ago, and which was found to be effective against MRSA (which is an antibiotic resistant staph infection).\nhttps://www.nottingham.ac.uk/news/pressreleases/2015/march/ancientbiotics---a-medieval-remedy-for-modern-day-superbugs.aspx\n\nThe practical methods and efficacy are coming to be [studied and verified ](https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-020-69273-8) still today.\n\nIt's commonly questioned when these remedies become verified in this manner, why did we stop using them in favor of modern antibiotics if they were so effective. It is theorized that commonly circulating bugs became at different points resistant to the compounds in the remedies, but that the resistance was likely lost over time as they stopped being used. I bring this specific remedy up because we have such a long span of time to look at. \n\nSo yes, it seems likely that the scenario you describe does naturally occur over time as bugs evolve. \n\nRelated, the practice of antibiotic rotation or cycling can [help prevent resistance in the first place](https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC478533/), so this method seems very promising. This type of prevention is based on the same principle your question is: antibiotic resistance is not static over time because the bugs are always evolving.\n\nSorry this comment is not written very well, I'm a layperson and just adding it because I've been interested in the topic for decades.","body_html":"<div class=\"md\"><p>This answer is going to sound fringe for this sub due to it being the science around an old folk remedy lol but you will find it's based on sound research via the sources.</p>\n\n<p>There's a medieval garlic and onion treatment involving wine and bile salts (the remedy is known as Bald\u2019s eyesalve) which was starting to be studied about 10 years ago, and which was found to be effective against MRSA (which is an antibiotic resistant staph infection).\n<a href=\"https://www.nottingham.ac.uk/news/pressreleases/2015/march/ancientbiotics---a-medieval-remedy-for-modern-day-superbugs.aspx\">https://www.nottingham.ac.uk/news/pressreleases/2015/march/ancientbiotics---a-medieval-remedy-for-modern-day-superbugs.aspx</a></p>\n\n<p>The practical methods and efficacy are coming to be <a href=\"https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-020-69273-8\">studied and verified </a> still today.</p>\n\n<p>It's commonly questioned when these remedies become verified in this manner, why did we stop using them in favor of modern antibiotics if they were so effective. It is theorized that commonly circulating bugs became at different points resistant to the compounds in the remedies, but that the resistance was likely lost over time as they stopped being used. I bring this specific remedy up because we have such a long span of time to look at. </p>\n\n<p>So yes, it seems likely that the scenario you describe does naturally occur over time as bugs evolve. </p>\n\n<p>Related, the practice of antibiotic rotation or cycling can <a href=\"https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC478533/\">help prevent resistance in the first place</a>, so this method seems very promising. This type of prevention is based on the same principle your question is: antibiotic resistance is not static over time because the bugs are always evolving.</p>\n\n<p>Sorry this comment is not written very well, I'm a layperson and just adding it because I've been interested in the topic for decades.</p>\n</div>","can_gild":false,"can_mod_post":false,"collapsed":false,"collapsed_because_crowd_control":null,"collapsed_reason":null,"collapsed_reason_code":null,"comment_type":null,"controversiality":0,"created":1747586329.0,"created_utc":1747586329.0,"distinguished":null,"downs":0,"edited":false,"gilded":0,"gildings":{},"id":"msz7uxg","is_submitter":false,"likes":null,"link_id":"t3_1kohejx","locked":false,"mod_note":null,"mod_reason_by":null,"mod_reason_title":null,"mod_reports":[],"name":"t1_msz7uxg","no_follow":true,"num_reports":null,"parent_id":"t3_1kohejx","permalink":"/r/askscience/comments/1kohejx/does_antibiotic_resistance_ever_undo_itself/msz7uxg/","removal_reason":null,"replies":"","report_reasons":null,"saved":false,"score":1,"score_hidden":true,"send_replies":true,"stickied":false,"subreddit":"askscience","subreddit_id":"t5_2qm4e","subreddit_name_prefixed":"r/askscience","subreddit_type":"public","top_awarded_type":null,"total_awards_received":0,"treatment_tags":[],"unrepliable_reason":null,"ups":1,"user_reports":[]},{"all_awardings":[],"approved_at_utc":null,"approved_by":null,"archived":false,"associated_award":null,"author":"ezekielraiden","author_flair_background_color":null,"author_flair_css_class":null,"author_flair_richtext":[],"author_flair_template_id":null,"author_flair_text":null,"author_flair_text_color":null,"author_flair_type":"text","author_fullname":"t2_16nhu9","author_is_blocked":false,"author_patreon_flair":false,"author_premium":false,"awarders":[],"banned_at_utc":null,"banned_by":null,"body":"Excellent points, just wanted to add one more little extra bit of complexity: \"dominant\" and \"recessive\" are also not hard binary states. *Some* genes work that way, but many genes are only partially or incompletely dominant, or can be co-dominant. So, for instance, the O blood type gene is functionally fully recessive, because that's coding for an *absence* of antigens. If someone's genes are OA or OB, they'll still express A antigens or B antigens and thus be that blood type. But someone who has AB genotype will express *both* types. This means A isn't dominant over B and B isn't dominant over A; they are *co-dominant* and both will be expressed fully. That's why there are four main types: A (which can be AA or OA genotype), B (which can be BB or OB), AB (which can only be AB genotype), and O (which can only be OO genotype).\n\nOther options can exist for other genes. As a classic example, in snapdragons, there are genes for red flowers and for white flowers (amongst other colors). If you crossbreed a pure red flower (RR) with a pure white flower (WW), all of the resulting plants will have *pink* flowers, because expressing a mixture of the two colors (RW) creates pink. Whereas a pink flower (RW) and a white flower (WW) might produce white or pink, since you cannot reach homozygous red (RR) from those parents.\n\nMany many other possible expressions can occur, which is part of what makes genetics such a difficult science; even when you know all the parts in isolation, you may not know how they *interact*.","body_html":"<div class=\"md\"><p>Excellent points, just wanted to add one more little extra bit of complexity: "dominant" and "recessive" are also not hard binary states. <em>Some</em> genes work that way, but many genes are only partially or incompletely dominant, or can be co-dominant. So, for instance, the O blood type gene is functionally fully recessive, because that's coding for an <em>absence</em> of antigens. If someone's genes are OA or OB, they'll still express A antigens or B antigens and thus be that blood type. But someone who has AB genotype will express <em>both</em> types. This means A isn't dominant over B and B isn't dominant over A; they are <em>co-dominant</em> and both will be expressed fully. That's why there are four main types: A (which can be AA or OA genotype), B (which can be BB or OB), AB (which can only be AB genotype), and O (which can only be OO genotype).</p>\n\n<p>Other options can exist for other genes. As a classic example, in snapdragons, there are genes for red flowers and for white flowers (amongst other colors). If you crossbreed a pure red flower (RR) with a pure white flower (WW), all of the resulting plants will have <em>pink</em> flowers, because expressing a mixture of the two colors (RW) creates pink. Whereas a pink flower (RW) and a white flower (WW) might produce white or pink, since you cannot reach homozygous red (RR) from those parents.</p>\n\n<p>Many many other possible expressions can occur, which is part of what makes genetics such a difficult science; even when you know all the parts in isolation, you may not know how they <em>interact</em>.</p>\n</div>","can_gild":false,"can_mod_post":false,"collapsed":false,"collapsed_because_crowd_control":null,"collapsed_reason":null,"collapsed_reason_code":null,"comment_type":null,"controversiality":0,"created":1747211443.0,"created_utc":1747211443.0,"distinguished":null,"downs":0,"edited":false,"gilded":0,"gildings":{},"id":"ms8k6h9","is_submitter":false,"likes":null,"link_id":"t3_1kli98b","locked":false,"mod_note":null,"mod_reason_by":null,"mod_reason_title":null,"mod_reports":[],"name":"t1_ms8k6h9","no_follow":true,"num_reports":null,"parent_id":"t1_ms8cwkj","permalink":"/r/askscience/comments/1kli98b/why_does_inbreeding_lead_to_more_issues_with/ms8k6h9/","removal_reason":null,"replies":"","report_reasons":null,"saved":false,"score":1,"score_hidden":true,"send_replies":true,"stickied":false,"subreddit":"askscience","subreddit_id":"t5_2qm4e","subreddit_name_prefixed":"r/askscience","subreddit_type":"public","top_awarded_type":null,"total_awards_received":0,"treatment_tags":[],"unrepliable_reason":null,"ups":1,"user_reports":[]},{"all_awardings":[],"approved_at_utc":null,"approved_by":null,"archived":false,"associated_award":null,"author":"Katniss218","author_flair_background_color":null,"author_flair_css_class":null,"author_flair_richtext":[],"author_flair_template_id":null,"author_flair_text":null,"author_flair_text_color":null,"author_flair_type":"text","author_fullname":"t2_3nrts0wk","author_is_blocked":false,"author_patreon_flair":false,"author_premium":false,"awarders":[],"banned_at_utc":null,"banned_by":null,"body":"Light only can't escape from inside the black hole.\nEverything outside the event horizon is mostly unaffected. \n\nBlack holes are tiny on a cosmic scale, even the supermassive ones.\n\nActive galactic nuclei (supermassive black holes accreting matter) are some of the brightest objects known to science.\nFar outshining their host galaxies.","body_html":"<div class=\"md\"><p>Light only can't escape from inside the black hole.\nEverything outside the event horizon is mostly unaffected. </p>\n\n<p>Black holes are tiny on a cosmic scale, even the supermassive ones.</p>\n\n<p>Active galactic nuclei (supermassive black holes accreting matter) are some of the brightest objects known to science.\nFar outshining their host galaxies.</p>\n</div>","can_gild":false,"can_mod_post":false,"collapsed":false,"collapsed_because_crowd_control":null,"collapsed_reason":null,"collapsed_reason_code":null,"comment_type":null,"controversiality":0,"created":1747045770.0,"created_utc":1747045770.0,"distinguished":null,"downs":0,"edited":false,"gilded":0,"gildings":{},"id":"mrw2q0e","is_submitter":false,"likes":null,"link_id":"t3_1kkiprk","locked":false,"mod_note":null,"mod_reason_by":null,"mod_reason_title":null,"mod_reports":[],"name":"t1_mrw2q0e","no_follow":false,"num_reports":null,"parent_id":"t3_1kkiprk","permalink":"/r/askscience/comments/1kkiprk/why_do_pictures_of_galaxies_appear_brightest_at/mrw2q0e/","removal_reason":null,"replies":"","report_reasons":null,"saved":false,"score":1,"score_hidden":true,"send_replies":true,"stickied":false,"subreddit":"askscience","subreddit_id":"t5_2qm4e","subreddit_name_prefixed":"r/askscience","subreddit_type":"public","top_awarded_type":null,"total_awards_received":0,"treatment_tags":[],"unrepliable_reason":null,"ups":1,"user_reports":[]},{"all_awardings":[],"approved_at_utc":null,"approved_by":null,"archived":false,"associated_award":null,"author":"lynsea","author_flair_background_color":"","author_flair_css_class":"bio","author_flair_richtext":[],"author_flair_template_id":null,"author_flair_text":"Marine Ecology","author_flair_text_color":"dark","author_flair_type":"text","author_fullname":"t2_4rlxh","author_is_blocked":false,"author_patreon_flair":false,"author_premium":false,"awarders":[],"banned_at_utc":null,"banned_by":null,"body":"No question, just a plug for the National Science Foundation which funded your work and is in the process of being diorama dismantled.","body_html":"<div class=\"md\"><p>No question, just a plug for the National Science Foundation which funded your work and is in the process of being diorama dismantled.</p>\n</div>","can_gild":false,"can_mod_post":false,"collapsed":false,"collapsed_because_crowd_control":null,"collapsed_reason":null,"collapsed_reason_code":null,"comment_type":null,"controversiality":0,"created":1746826363.0,"created_utc":1746826363.0,"distinguished":null,"downs":0,"edited":false,"gilded":0,"gildings":{},"id":"mrhlwxm","is_submitter":false,"likes":null,"link_id":"t3_1kig9rj","locked":false,"mod_note":null,"mod_reason_by":null,"mod_reason_title":null,"mod_reports":[],"name":"t1_mrhlwxm","no_follow":true,"num_reports":null,"parent_id":"t3_1kig9rj","permalink":"/r/askscience/comments/1kig9rj/askscience_ama_series_were_event_horizon/mrhlwxm/","removal_reason":null,"replies":"","report_reasons":null,"saved":false,"score":1,"score_hidden":true,"send_replies":true,"stickied":false,"subreddit":"askscience","subreddit_id":"t5_2qm4e","subreddit_name_prefixed":"r/askscience","subreddit_type":"public","top_awarded_type":null,"total_awards_received":0,"treatment_tags":[],"unrepliable_reason":null,"ups":1,"user_reports":[]},{"all_awardings":[],"approved_at_utc":null,"approved_by":null,"archived":false,"associated_award":null,"author":"sdoeleman","author_flair_background_color":null,"author_flair_css_class":"astro","author_flair_richtext":[],"author_flair_template_id":"f0dc0362-b8f7-11e8-ac91-0ef3afb07f22","author_flair_text":"EHT AMA","author_flair_text_color":"dark","author_flair_type":"text","author_fullname":"t2_p51j2","author_is_blocked":false,"author_patreon_flair":false,"author_premium":false,"awarders":[],"banned_at_utc":null,"banned_by":null,"body":"What a great question!\u00a0 Black hole enthusiasts (like us) can always help by steering people to the EHT and ngEHT websites and social media to further spread our science. People can also help by lobbying their Representatives to promote curiosity-motivated science.\u00a0\u00a0\n\n\n\nWe don\u2019t know when black hole science will lead to direct applications for society but this research, which focuses on the unknowns in our universe, is where we may find entirely new physics.\u00a0 An example is that when Einstein wrote his theory of gravity in 1915, he had no idea that this incredible advance would have any real-world applications.\u00a0 But now we use general relativity every day through the GPS in our phones; if you don\u2019t make Einstein modifications to Newton\u2019s gravity, GPS would be incorrect by many miles!\u00a0 So, it will take time, but I\u2019m sure that black hole research will pay off.","body_html":"<div class=\"md\"><p>What a great question!\u00a0 Black hole enthusiasts (like us) can always help by steering people to the EHT and ngEHT websites and social media to further spread our science. People can also help by lobbying their Representatives to promote curiosity-motivated science.\u00a0\u00a0</p>\n\n<p>We don\u2019t know when black hole science will lead to direct applications for society but this research, which focuses on the unknowns in our universe, is where we may find entirely new physics.\u00a0 An example is that when Einstein wrote his theory of gravity in 1915, he had no idea that this incredible advance would have any real-world applications.\u00a0 But now we use general relativity every day through the GPS in our phones; if you don\u2019t make Einstein modifications to Newton\u2019s gravity, GPS would be incorrect by many miles!\u00a0 So, it will take time, but I\u2019m sure that black hole research will pay off.</p>\n</div>","can_gild":false,"can_mod_post":false,"collapsed":false,"collapsed_because_crowd_control":null,"collapsed_reason":null,"collapsed_reason_code":null,"comment_type":null,"controversiality":0,"created":1746821097.0,"created_utc":1746821097.0,"distinguished":null,"downs":0,"edited":false,"gilded":0,"gildings":{},"id":"mrh576u","is_submitter":false,"likes":null,"link_id":"t3_1kig9rj","locked":false,"mod_note":null,"mod_reason_by":null,"mod_reason_title":null,"mod_reports":[],"name":"t1_mrh576u","no_follow":true,"num_reports":null,"parent_id":"t1_mrfl7lo","permalink":"/r/askscience/comments/1kig9rj/askscience_ama_series_were_event_horizon/mrh576u/","removal_reason":null,"replies":"","report_reasons":null,"saved":false,"score":1,"score_hidden":true,"send_replies":true,"stickied":false,"subreddit":"askscience","subreddit_id":"t5_2qm4e","subreddit_name_prefixed":"r/askscience","subreddit_type":"public","top_awarded_type":null,"total_awards_received":0,"treatment_tags":[],"unrepliable_reason":null,"ups":1,"user_reports":[]},{"all_awardings":[],"approved_at_utc":null,"approved_by":null,"archived":false,"associated_award":null,"author":"fancyFriday","author_flair_background_color":null,"author_flair_css_class":null,"author_flair_richtext":[],"author_flair_template_id":null,"author_flair_text":null,"author_flair_text_color":null,"author_flair_type":"text","author_fullname":"t2_11bnia","author_is_blocked":false,"author_patreon_flair":false,"author_premium":false,"awarders":[],"banned_at_utc":null,"banned_by":null,"body":"Well it is actually that in a situation, like being inside a car, it isn't the tires that protect you, it is the body of the car. Electricity will surprisingly stay on the outside of the body and not travel through it. \n\nI remember the first time I heard about this was in the Boston Museum of Science as a child. I watched their tesla coils throw out lightning strikes ~6 feet to a cage that the presenter was inside. She would even push on the inside of the cage and explained to us that as long as she didn't wrap her fingers around the bars, then she wouldn't get hit by it. It blew my mind at the time. \n\nSo basically it is because it acts as a Faraday cage vs being insulated from the ground. If you have a power line down on your car though, then  it is insulating you, because if you step out and complete that circuit, you're dead. That's a different scenario though.","body_html":"<div class=\"md\"><p>Well it is actually that in a situation, like being inside a car, it isn't the tires that protect you, it is the body of the car. Electricity will surprisingly stay on the outside of the body and not travel through it. </p>\n\n<p>I remember the first time I heard about this was in the Boston Museum of Science as a child. I watched their tesla coils throw out lightning strikes ~6 feet to a cage that the presenter was inside. She would even push on the inside of the cage and explained to us that as long as she didn't wrap her fingers around the bars, then she wouldn't get hit by it. It blew my mind at the time. </p>\n\n<p>So basically it is because it acts as a Faraday cage vs being insulated from the ground. If you have a power line down on your car though, then  it is insulating you, because if you step out and complete that circuit, you're dead. That's a different scenario though.</p>\n</div>","can_gild":false,"can_mod_post":false,"collapsed":false,"collapsed_because_crowd_control":null,"collapsed_reason":null,"collapsed_reason_code":null,"comment_type":null,"controversiality":0,"created":1746752620.0,"created_utc":1746752620.0,"distinguished":null,"downs":0,"edited":false,"gilded":0,"gildings":{},"id":"mrcf98q","is_submitter":false,"likes":null,"link_id":"t3_1khrsm7","locked":false,"mod_note":null,"mod_reason_by":null,"mod_reason_title":null,"mod_reports":[],"name":"t1_mrcf98q","no_follow":true,"num_reports":null,"parent_id":"t1_mrap37g","permalink":"/r/askscience/comments/1khrsm7/would_a_full_body_set_of_chainmail_armor_protect/mrcf98q/","removal_reason":null,"replies":"","report_reasons":null,"saved":false,"score":1,"score_hidden":true,"send_replies":true,"stickied":false,"subreddit":"askscience","subreddit_id":"t5_2qm4e","subreddit_name_prefixed":"r/askscience","subreddit_type":"public","top_awarded_type":null,"total_awards_received":0,"treatment_tags":[],"unrepliable_reason":null,"ups":1,"user_reports":[]},{"all_awardings":[],"approved_at_utc":null,"approved_by":null,"archived":false,"associated_award":null,"author":"Blu-Void","author_flair_background_color":null,"author_flair_css_class":null,"author_flair_richtext":[],"author_flair_template_id":null,"author_flair_text":null,"author_flair_text_color":null,"author_flair_type":"text","author_fullname":"t2_9744f08f","author_is_blocked":false,"author_patreon_flair":false,"author_premium":false,"awarders":[],"banned_at_utc":null,"banned_by":null,"body":"Cooking meat killed a lot of parasites back in the days before vaccines were used on agricultural animals, pigs were one of the most parasite ridden animals which is why it's taboo in a lot of religions... Not they knew this they just knew eating it made you sick so must be a sin, how silly religious people were, but makes sense now we have science and now makes less sense they still don't eat it as it's now safe to eat.\n\nCooking meat can also make digesting food easier and free up some vital molecules though I am see a rise in raw meat as a thing on the internet, with no parasites and better hygiene, it's safer age to do that, not convinced there is much more benefit in doing this though... May look into it now","body_html":"<div class=\"md\"><p>Cooking meat killed a lot of parasites back in the days before vaccines were used on agricultural animals, pigs were one of the most parasite ridden animals which is why it's taboo in a lot of religions... Not they knew this they just knew eating it made you sick so must be a sin, how silly religious people were, but makes sense now we have science and now makes less sense they still don't eat it as it's now safe to eat.</p>\n\n<p>Cooking meat can also make digesting food easier and free up some vital molecules though I am see a rise in raw meat as a thing on the internet, with no parasites and better hygiene, it's safer age to do that, not convinced there is much more benefit in doing this though... May look into it now</p>\n</div>","can_gild":false,"can_mod_post":false,"collapsed":false,"collapsed_because_crowd_control":null,"collapsed_reason":null,"collapsed_reason_code":null,"comment_type":null,"controversiality":0,"created":1746700879.0,"created_utc":1746700879.0,"distinguished":null,"downs":0,"edited":false,"gilded":0,"gildings":{},"id":"mr80le2","is_submitter":false,"likes":null,"link_id":"t3_1kf6e32","locked":false,"mod_note":null,"mod_reason_by":null,"mod_reason_title":null,"mod_reports":[],"name":"t1_mr80le2","no_follow":true,"num_reports":null,"parent_id":"t3_1kf6e32","permalink":"/r/askscience/comments/1kf6e32/have_humans_evolved_to_eat_cooked_food/mr80le2/","removal_reason":null,"replies":"","report_reasons":null,"saved":false,"score":1,"score_hidden":true,"send_replies":true,"stickied":false,"subreddit":"askscience","subreddit_id":"t5_2qm4e","subreddit_name_prefixed":"r/askscience","subreddit_type":"public","top_awarded_type":null,"total_awards_received":0,"treatment_tags":[],"unrepliable_reason":null,"ups":1,"user_reports":[]},{"all_awardings":[],"approved_at_utc":null,"approved_by":null,"archived":false,"associated_award":null,"author":"vee_lan_cleef","author_flair_background_color":null,"author_flair_css_class":null,"author_flair_richtext":[],"author_flair_template_id":null,"author_flair_text":null,"author_flair_text_color":null,"author_flair_type":"text","author_fullname":"t2_n72an","author_is_blocked":false,"author_patreon_flair":false,"author_premium":false,"awarders":[],"banned_at_utc":null,"banned_by":null,"body":"I mean, Prometheus is *the story* when it comes to old trees. A very frustrating story, and very indicative of the way science was done back in the day. Absolutely reckless and it's wild that the train of thought was \"trees grow back\" with no fucks given to the fact these trees were *known* to likely be 1000+ years old, and 1000 years is obviously a *very long time* in human terms, and they were *known* to only exist in a relatively small range and in extremely harsh environments, meaning the number of specimens is limited. Even marine biologists like Jacques Cousteau were out there killing sharks for his nature documentaries, something he expressed great shame about in his later years.   \n  \nThese days, you would absolutely never get permission to cut a tree that might be the oldest in the world (or an old tree of a species of which few examples still exist such as redwoods) just to date it. The way it should have been done is to let the tree live, and *find a new way (or improve on an existing method) to date trees* non-destructively, something which we have since done.","body_html":"<div class=\"md\"><p>I mean, Prometheus is <em>the story</em> when it comes to old trees. A very frustrating story, and very indicative of the way science was done back in the day. Absolutely reckless and it's wild that the train of thought was "trees grow back" with no fucks given to the fact these trees were <em>known</em> to likely be 1000+ years old, and 1000 years is obviously a <em>very long time</em> in human terms, and they were <em>known</em> to only exist in a relatively small range and in extremely harsh environments, meaning the number of specimens is limited. Even marine biologists like Jacques Cousteau were out there killing sharks for his nature documentaries, something he expressed great shame about in his later years.   </p>\n\n<p>These days, you would absolutely never get permission to cut a tree that might be the oldest in the world (or an old tree of a species of which few examples still exist such as redwoods) just to date it. The way it should have been done is to let the tree live, and <em>find a new way (or improve on an existing method) to date trees</em> non-destructively, something which we have since done.</p>\n</div>","can_gild":false,"can_mod_post":false,"collapsed":false,"collapsed_because_crowd_control":null,"collapsed_reason":null,"collapsed_reason_code":null,"comment_type":null,"controversiality":0,"created":1746682194.0,"created_utc":1746682194.0,"distinguished":null,"downs":0,"edited":false,"gilded":0,"gildings":{},"id":"mr75h41","is_submitter":false,"likes":null,"link_id":"t3_1khc1ik","locked":false,"mod_note":null,"mod_reason_by":null,"mod_reason_title":null,"mod_reports":[],"name":"t1_mr75h41","no_follow":true,"num_reports":null,"parent_id":"t1_mr6pif0","permalink":"/r/askscience/comments/1khc1ik/do_trees_age_can_they_live_forever/mr75h41/","removal_reason":null,"replies":"","report_reasons":null,"saved":false,"score":1,"score_hidden":true,"send_replies":true,"stickied":false,"subreddit":"askscience","subreddit_id":"t5_2qm4e","subreddit_name_prefixed":"r/askscience","subreddit_type":"public","top_awarded_type":null,"total_awards_received":0,"treatment_tags":[],"unrepliable_reason":null,"ups":1,"user_reports":[]},{"all_awardings":[],"approved_at_utc":null,"approved_by":null,"archived":false,"associated_award":null,"author":"USAF_DTom","author_flair_background_color":null,"author_flair_css_class":null,"author_flair_richtext":[],"author_flair_template_id":null,"author_flair_text":null,"author_flair_text_color":null,"author_flair_type":"text","author_fullname":"t2_b1hiu","author_is_blocked":false,"author_patreon_flair":false,"author_premium":false,"awarders":[],"banned_at_utc":null,"banned_by":null,"body":"They don't *see* two colors they can *receive* two colors. They have dichromatic cones (blue and yellow). We have trichromatic (RGB). \n\nThe adaptation is that color is less important to them. Movement is what they primarily need to respond to. \n\nThere's a theory though that over time their color vision has actually improved as part of being around us. I did not feel like reading those papers though to see if they were legitimate and based on good science though. Take it with a grain of salt.","body_html":"<div class=\"md\"><p>They don't <em>see</em> two colors they can <em>receive</em> two colors. They have dichromatic cones (blue and yellow). We have trichromatic (RGB). </p>\n\n<p>The adaptation is that color is less important to them. Movement is what they primarily need to respond to. </p>\n\n<p>There's a theory though that over time their color vision has actually improved as part of being around us. I did not feel like reading those papers though to see if they were legitimate and based on good science though. Take it with a grain of salt.</p>\n</div>","can_gild":false,"can_mod_post":false,"collapsed":false,"collapsed_because_crowd_control":null,"collapsed_reason":null,"collapsed_reason_code":null,"comment_type":null,"controversiality":0,"created":1746653740.0,"created_utc":1746653740.0,"distinguished":null,"downs":0,"edited":false,"gilded":0,"gildings":{},"id":"mr51esl","is_submitter":false,"likes":null,"link_id":"t3_1kgyfe7","locked":false,"mod_note":null,"mod_reason_by":null,"mod_reason_title":null,"mod_reports":[],"name":"t1_mr51esl","no_follow":true,"num_reports":null,"parent_id":"t3_1kgyfe7","permalink":"/r/askscience/comments/1kgyfe7/why_do_dogs_only_see_2_colors_what_is_that/mr51esl/","removal_reason":null,"replies":"","report_reasons":null,"saved":false,"score":1,"score_hidden":true,"send_replies":true,"stickied":false,"subreddit":"askscience","subreddit_id":"t5_2qm4e","subreddit_name_prefixed":"r/askscience","subreddit_type":"public","top_awarded_type":null,"total_awards_received":0,"treatment_tags":[],"unrepliable_reason":null,"ups":1,"user_reports":[]},{"all_awardings":[],"approved_at_utc":null,"approved_by":null,"archived":false,"associated_award":null,"author":"askscience-ModTeam","author_flair_background_color":null,"author_flair_css_class":null,"author_flair_richtext":[],"author_flair_template_id":null,"author_flair_text":null,"author_flair_text_color":null,"author_flair_type":"text","author_fullname":"t2_rpe3jilg","author_is_blocked":false,"author_patreon_flair":false,"author_premium":false,"awarders":[],"banned_at_utc":null,"banned_by":null,"body":"Thank you for your submission! Unfortunately, your submission has been removed for the following reason(s):\n\n* This violates our guidelines in terms of questions about science itself or the process of doing science (and if you look at our guidelines, you'll see that these provide some suggestions for more appropriate subs for questions like that) and also effectively our ban on questions related to or using generative AI. As such, this is also probably not appropriate for our more open ended up sister subreddit (AskScienceDiscussion) which appears in the list of potential places to take questions about doing science as ASD has a similar prohibition on generative AI related content.\n\nA word of caution, ChatGPT isn't designed to validate hypotheses, only to generate responses that sound human, so you are correct to not put much (or really any) stock in its response. In theory, the way you would propose a new principle would be by writing a paper describing it and submitting it for peer review to an appropriate journal based on the topic for which this principle is relevant. Importantly, the adage \"ideas are cheap\" is relevant here, i.e., coming up with potential hypotheses is not usually that challenging, acquiring data that begins to hint at the relevance or validity of the hypothesis is hard, and is 100% needed to publish. \n\n\n\nIf you disagree with this decision, please send a [message to the moderators.](https://www.reddit.com/message/compose?to=%2Fr%2Faskscience)","body_html":"<div class=\"md\"><p>Thank you for your submission! Unfortunately, your submission has been removed for the following reason(s):</p>\n\n<ul>\n<li>This violates our guidelines in terms of questions about science itself or the process of doing science (and if you look at our guidelines, you'll see that these provide some suggestions for more appropriate subs for questions like that) and also effectively our ban on questions related to or using generative AI. As such, this is also probably not appropriate for our more open ended up sister subreddit (AskScienceDiscussion) which appears in the list of potential places to take questions about doing science as ASD has a similar prohibition on generative AI related content.</li>\n</ul>\n\n<p>A word of caution, ChatGPT isn't designed to validate hypotheses, only to generate responses that sound human, so you are correct to not put much (or really any) stock in its response. In theory, the way you would propose a new principle would be by writing a paper describing it and submitting it for peer review to an appropriate journal based on the topic for which this principle is relevant. Importantly, the adage "ideas are cheap" is relevant here, i.e., coming up with potential hypotheses is not usually that challenging, acquiring data that begins to hint at the relevance or validity of the hypothesis is hard, and is 100% needed to publish. </p>\n\n<p>If you disagree with this decision, please send a <a href=\"https://www.reddit.com/message/compose?to=%2Fr%2Faskscience\">message to the moderators.</a></p>\n</div>","can_gild":false,"can_mod_post":false,"collapsed":false,"collapsed_because_crowd_control":null,"collapsed_reason":null,"collapsed_reason_code":null,"comment_type":null,"controversiality":0,"created":1746634030.0,"created_utc":1746634030.0,"distinguished":"moderator","downs":0,"edited":false,"gilded":0,"gildings":{},"id":"mr34vg9","is_submitter":false,"likes":null,"link_id":"t3_1kh057z","locked":false,"mod_note":null,"mod_reason_by":null,"mod_reason_title":null,"mod_reports":[],"name":"t1_mr34vg9","no_follow":true,"num_reports":null,"parent_id":"t3_1kh057z","permalink":"/r/askscience/comments/1kh057z/delete_this_if_its_not_allowed_what_happens_if/mr34vg9/","removal_reason":null,"replies":"","report_reasons":null,"saved":false,"score":1,"score_hidden":true,"send_replies":true,"stickied":true,"subreddit":"askscience","subreddit_id":"t5_2qm4e","subreddit_name_prefixed":"r/askscience","subreddit_type":"public","top_awarded_type":null,"total_awards_received":0,"treatment_tags":[],"unrepliable_reason":null,"ups":1,"user_reports":[]},{"all_awardings":[],"approved_at_utc":null,"approved_by":null,"archived":false,"associated_award":null,"author":"Beat_the_Deadites","author_flair_background_color":null,"author_flair_css_class":null,"author_flair_richtext":[],"author_flair_template_id":null,"author_flair_text":null,"author_flair_text_color":null,"author_flair_type":"text","author_fullname":"t2_f0pjd","author_is_blocked":false,"author_patreon_flair":false,"author_premium":false,"awarders":[],"banned_at_utc":null,"banned_by":null,"body":"Right, there are some 200 different respiratory viruses that cause 'colds'.  The chance of all 200 of those viruses having a similar antigenic surface protein is slim.  And even if they *did* have a similar 'grab bar' for antibodies to attach to, there's a decent chance other things in our body would also have the same thing, resulting in an autoimmune reaction.\n\nThere's also the hygiene hypothesis, whereby some of our allergies and autoimmune disease result from 'bored' immune systems looking for a fight.  Without regular 'exercise' against common mild infections, the immune system may malfunction.\n\nI'm sure the science is well beyond what I learned 15-20 years ago, but it's not a simple process by any stretch.","body_html":"<div class=\"md\"><p>Right, there are some 200 different respiratory viruses that cause 'colds'.  The chance of all 200 of those viruses having a similar antigenic surface protein is slim.  And even if they <em>did</em> have a similar 'grab bar' for antibodies to attach to, there's a decent chance other things in our body would also have the same thing, resulting in an autoimmune reaction.</p>\n\n<p>There's also the hygiene hypothesis, whereby some of our allergies and autoimmune disease result from 'bored' immune systems looking for a fight.  Without regular 'exercise' against common mild infections, the immune system may malfunction.</p>\n\n<p>I'm sure the science is well beyond what I learned 15-20 years ago, but it's not a simple process by any stretch.</p>\n</div>","can_gild":false,"can_mod_post":false,"collapsed":false,"collapsed_because_crowd_control":null,"collapsed_reason":null,"collapsed_reason_code":null,"comment_type":null,"controversiality":0,"created":1746627934.0,"created_utc":1746627934.0,"distinguished":null,"downs":0,"edited":false,"gilded":0,"gildings":{},"id":"mr2jya3","is_submitter":false,"likes":null,"link_id":"t3_1kgc9jr","locked":false,"mod_note":null,"mod_reason_by":null,"mod_reason_title":null,"mod_reports":[],"name":"t1_mr2jya3","no_follow":true,"num_reports":null,"parent_id":"t1_mr1h5qz","permalink":"/r/askscience/comments/1kgc9jr/why_dont_more_vaccines_exist/mr2jya3/","removal_reason":null,"replies":"","report_reasons":null,"saved":false,"score":1,"score_hidden":true,"send_replies":true,"stickied":false,"subreddit":"askscience","subreddit_id":"t5_2qm4e","subreddit_name_prefixed":"r/askscience","subreddit_type":"public","top_awarded_type":null,"total_awards_received":0,"treatment_tags":[],"unrepliable_reason":null,"ups":1,"user_reports":[]},{"all_awardings":[],"approved_at_utc":null,"approved_by":null,"archived":false,"associated_award":null,"author":"Carefree_Symbolism","author_flair_background_color":null,"author_flair_css_class":null,"author_flair_richtext":[],"author_flair_template_id":null,"author_flair_text":null,"author_flair_text_color":null,"author_flair_type":"text","author_fullname":"t2_1oba2bzct5","author_is_blocked":false,"author_patreon_flair":false,"author_premium":false,"awarders":[],"banned_at_utc":null,"banned_by":null,"body":"What is the science behind Hyperphantasia?","body_html":"<div class=\"md\"><p>What is the science behind Hyperphantasia?</p>\n</div>","can_gild":false,"can_mod_post":false,"collapsed":false,"collapsed_because_crowd_control":null,"collapsed_reason":null,"collapsed_reason_code":null,"comment_type":null,"controversiality":0,"created":1746626809.0,"created_utc":1746626809.0,"distinguished":null,"downs":0,"edited":false,"gilded":0,"gildings":{},"id":"mr2g9ev","is_submitter":false,"likes":null,"link_id":"t3_1kgy2xz","locked":false,"mod_note":null,"mod_reason_by":null,"mod_reason_title":null,"mod_reports":[],"name":"t1_mr2g9ev","no_follow":true,"num_reports":null,"parent_id":"t3_1kgy2xz","permalink":"/r/askscience/comments/1kgy2xz/ask_anything_wednesday_biology_chemistry/mr2g9ev/","removal_reason":null,"replies":"","report_reasons":null,"saved":false,"score":1,"score_hidden":true,"send_replies":true,"stickied":false,"subreddit":"askscience","subreddit_id":"t5_2qm4e","subreddit_name_prefixed":"r/askscience","subreddit_type":"public","top_awarded_type":null,"total_awards_received":0,"treatment_tags":[],"unrepliable_reason":null,"ups":1,"user_reports":[]},{"all_awardings":[],"approved_at_utc":null,"approved_by":null,"archived":false,"associated_award":null,"author":"Lethalmouse1","author_flair_background_color":null,"author_flair_css_class":null,"author_flair_richtext":[],"author_flair_template_id":null,"author_flair_text":null,"author_flair_text_color":null,"author_flair_type":"text","author_fullname":"t2_16icjo","author_is_blocked":false,"author_patreon_flair":false,"author_premium":false,"awarders":[],"banned_at_utc":null,"banned_by":null,"body":"https://www.who.int/news-room/feature-stories/detail/vaccine-efficacy-effectiveness-and-protection\n\n\nVaccine effectiveness if we go with even 80%. Then we look at something like E. Coli and the fact that not even is all E. Coli hazardous, as only the toxin producers are.\u00a0\n\n\nThen the vast majority of people who get E. Coli poo for a day at worst and then its over.\u00a0\n\n\nThe next set is that unlike viruses which don't habe antibiotics, E. Coli is subject to such, and the antibiotics are highly effective generally.\u00a0\n\n\nWith some 30 deaths a year, which necessarily include people who were in shape to die from just about anything.\u00a0\n\n\nSo even if you could design a vaccine that worked, at best, you'd be looking at saving what? 24 people. Who would probably die within a year anyway?\u00a0\n\n\nFurther the effect of the toxins is the real problem and being vaccinated means your body fights the infection. All those poo people I mentioned earlier? They defeat E. Coli as easily as one would with a vaccine. But the bacteria still kicks out some toxins before it dies.\u00a0\n\n\nSo you basically destroy coli in a day all the time.\u00a0\n\n\nAlso, vaccines reproduce generally, the same effect of what occurs when you get an illness and develop immunity.\u00a0\n\n\nPeople who get e. Coli can get it again pretty well, because again the symptom problem is toxins whether you beat it or not.\u00a0\n\n\nSo, most people are already \"vaccinated\" against it and still get it. Meaning the liklihood of an effective vaccine is about as low as it gets.\u00a0\n\n\nWhat you cannot vaccinate against as of any science I know about, is toxins. So the only real valuable \"vaccine\" against some of these issues would be a non-existent Toxin Vaccine.\u00a0","body_html":"<div class=\"md\"><p><a href=\"https://www.who.int/news-room/feature-stories/detail/vaccine-efficacy-effectiveness-and-protection\">https://www.who.int/news-room/feature-stories/detail/vaccine-efficacy-effectiveness-and-protection</a></p>\n\n<p>Vaccine effectiveness if we go with even 80%. Then we look at something like E. Coli and the fact that not even is all E. Coli hazardous, as only the toxin producers are.\u00a0</p>\n\n<p>Then the vast majority of people who get E. Coli poo for a day at worst and then its over.\u00a0</p>\n\n<p>The next set is that unlike viruses which don't habe antibiotics, E. Coli is subject to such, and the antibiotics are highly effective generally.\u00a0</p>\n\n<p>With some 30 deaths a year, which necessarily include people who were in shape to die from just about anything.\u00a0</p>\n\n<p>So even if you could design a vaccine that worked, at best, you'd be looking at saving what? 24 people. Who would probably die within a year anyway?\u00a0</p>\n\n<p>Further the effect of the toxins is the real problem and being vaccinated means your body fights the infection. All those poo people I mentioned earlier? They defeat E. Coli as easily as one would with a vaccine. But the bacteria still kicks out some toxins before it dies.\u00a0</p>\n\n<p>So you basically destroy coli in a day all the time.\u00a0</p>\n\n<p>Also, vaccines reproduce generally, the same effect of what occurs when you get an illness and develop immunity.\u00a0</p>\n\n<p>People who get e. Coli can get it again pretty well, because again the symptom problem is toxins whether you beat it or not.\u00a0</p>\n\n<p>So, most people are already "vaccinated" against it and still get it. Meaning the liklihood of an effective vaccine is about as low as it gets.\u00a0</p>\n\n<p>What you cannot vaccinate against as of any science I know about, is toxins. So the only real valuable "vaccine" against some of these issues would be a non-existent Toxin Vaccine.\u00a0</p>\n</div>","can_gild":false,"can_mod_post":false,"collapsed":false,"collapsed_because_crowd_control":null,"collapsed_reason":null,"collapsed_reason_code":null,"comment_type":null,"controversiality":0,"created":1746618829.0,"created_utc":1746618829.0,"distinguished":null,"downs":0,"edited":false,"gilded":0,"gildings":{},"id":"mr1tpip","is_submitter":false,"likes":null,"link_id":"t3_1kgc9jr","locked":false,"mod_note":null,"mod_reason_by":null,"mod_reason_title":null,"mod_reports":[],"name":"t1_mr1tpip","no_follow":true,"num_reports":null,"parent_id":"t3_1kgc9jr","permalink":"/r/askscience/comments/1kgc9jr/why_dont_more_vaccines_exist/mr1tpip/","removal_reason":null,"replies":"","report_reasons":null,"saved":false,"score":1,"score_hidden":true,"send_replies":true,"stickied":false,"subreddit":"askscience","subreddit_id":"t5_2qm4e","subreddit_name_prefixed":"r/askscience","subreddit_type":"public","top_awarded_type":null,"total_awards_received":0,"treatment_tags":[],"unrepliable_reason":null,"ups":1,"user_reports":[]},{"all_awardings":[],"approved_at_utc":null,"approved_by":null,"archived":false,"associated_award":null,"author":"genetic_driftin","author_flair_background_color":null,"author_flair_css_class":null,"author_flair_richtext":[],"author_flair_template_id":null,"author_flair_text":null,"author_flair_text_color":null,"author_flair_type":"text","author_fullname":"t2_nsu6cyk","author_is_blocked":false,"author_patreon_flair":false,"author_premium":false,"awarders":[],"banned_at_utc":null,"banned_by":null,"body":"The cost of clinical trials is one more thing. And more specifically, excessive and outdated paperwork and procedures.\n\nI just got prescreened for a(nother) vaccine study yesterday. This was after delays on another vaccine study I was waiting for got put on hold.\n\nIt took over 3 hours. It should and could have taken 1 hour, but they presented the same information and asked me the same questions probably 5 times between prescreens on phone, and in person. I was seen by one staff who left the office 5 times for every step or question he got confused at, and was seen by two NPs and a PA to do a blood draw.\n\nThat time burden also drives up recruitment costs. The staff told me they usually just get retirees who have time to show up. That must shrink the recruitment pool.\n\nAt the end of this trial, I will probably just provide one useful (summarized) data point and it will probably cost thousands of dollars.\n\nThe COVID vaccine (one of the trials of which I was in) effectiveness could be summarized in one graph. Each person really only provided one critical data point (i.e. what date did you get COVID) on that graph despite maybe hundreds of raw data points and extra health information collected on each individual.\n\nI understand the importance of safety, but the slowness was excessive and counterproductive, in my scientific opinion.  I work with plant science, and sample sizes that have gone into the 100,000s, because some experiments only cost a few cents per data point. You can do a lot more things when costs are that low. All that money getting extra information on every individual could and should be spent getting more individuals in my opinion.","body_html":"<div class=\"md\"><p>The cost of clinical trials is one more thing. And more specifically, excessive and outdated paperwork and procedures.</p>\n\n<p>I just got prescreened for a(nother) vaccine study yesterday. This was after delays on another vaccine study I was waiting for got put on hold.</p>\n\n<p>It took over 3 hours. It should and could have taken 1 hour, but they presented the same information and asked me the same questions probably 5 times between prescreens on phone, and in person. I was seen by one staff who left the office 5 times for every step or question he got confused at, and was seen by two NPs and a PA to do a blood draw.</p>\n\n<p>That time burden also drives up recruitment costs. The staff told me they usually just get retirees who have time to show up. That must shrink the recruitment pool.</p>\n\n<p>At the end of this trial, I will probably just provide one useful (summarized) data point and it will probably cost thousands of dollars.</p>\n\n<p>The COVID vaccine (one of the trials of which I was in) effectiveness could be summarized in one graph. Each person really only provided one critical data point (i.e. what date did you get COVID) on that graph despite maybe hundreds of raw data points and extra health information collected on each individual.</p>\n\n<p>I understand the importance of safety, but the slowness was excessive and counterproductive, in my scientific opinion.  I work with plant science, and sample sizes that have gone into the 100,000s, because some experiments only cost a few cents per data point. You can do a lot more things when costs are that low. All that money getting extra information on every individual could and should be spent getting more individuals in my opinion.</p>\n</div>","can_gild":false,"can_mod_post":false,"collapsed":false,"collapsed_because_crowd_control":null,"collapsed_reason":null,"collapsed_reason_code":null,"comment_type":null,"controversiality":0,"created":1746575786.0,"created_utc":1746575786.0,"distinguished":null,"downs":0,"edited":false,"gilded":0,"gildings":{},"id":"mqz9fol","is_submitter":false,"likes":null,"link_id":"t3_1kgc9jr","locked":false,"mod_note":null,"mod_reason_by":null,"mod_reason_title":null,"mod_reports":[],"name":"t1_mqz9fol","no_follow":true,"num_reports":null,"parent_id":"t3_1kgc9jr","permalink":"/r/askscience/comments/1kgc9jr/why_dont_more_vaccines_exist/mqz9fol/","removal_reason":null,"replies":"","report_reasons":null,"saved":false,"score":1,"score_hidden":true,"send_replies":true,"stickied":false,"subreddit":"askscience","subreddit_id":"t5_2qm4e","subreddit_name_prefixed":"r/askscience","subreddit_type":"public","top_awarded_type":null,"total_awards_received":0,"treatment_tags":[],"unrepliable_reason":null,"ups":1,"user_reports":[]},{"all_awardings":[],"approved_at_utc":null,"approved_by":null,"archived":false,"associated_award":null,"author":"cjbartoz","author_flair_background_color":null,"author_flair_css_class":null,"author_flair_richtext":[],"author_flair_template_id":null,"author_flair_text":null,"author_flair_text_color":null,"author_flair_type":"text","author_fullname":"t2_5tgxizmtc","author_is_blocked":false,"author_patreon_flair":false,"author_premium":false,"awarders":[],"banned_at_utc":null,"banned_by":null,"body":"This is the only study that I know of that compared a mostly plant based diet against a mostly animal based diet. (The carnivores were the most healthy):\n\n[https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/fullarticle/1153267](https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/fullarticle/1153267)\n\nWhat did our ancestors eat during the stone age? Mostly meat:\n\n[https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2021/04/210405113606.htm](https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2021/04/210405113606.htm)\n\nOn April 28, 1947, Dr. L. L. Savage of the University of Chicago started a 40-day trial of an all-pemmican diet. The pemmican supplied Dr. Savage contained 1.7% moisture, 41% protein, 56.5% fat, and 75.6% of the calories were furnished by fat; salt was not used in the formulation. Two months after the study was initiated, he concludes: \u201cPemmican came as close as any to the ultimate ideal of a concentrated \u2018pill\u2019 diet.\u201d\n\nMeat contains vitamin c and is known to cure scurvy:\u00a0[https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0309174006002701?via%3Dihub](https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0309174006002701?via%3Dihub)\u00a0\u00a0\n\nOne of the biggest fiber myths out there is that it helps with bowel health. One study found that eliminating fiber helped with constipation:\u00a0[https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22969234/](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22969234/)\u00a0\u00a0\n\nOne study found that fiber didn\u2019t affect the gut microbiome diversity but caused gas and dysbiosis:\u00a0[https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29757343/](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29757343/)\n\nCarbs are not necessary, in fact, according to the Food and Nutrition Board of the Institute of Medicine of the US National Academies of Sciences, 'The lower limit of dietary carbohydrate compatible with life apparently is zero, provided that adequate amounts of protein and fat are consumed'.\n\nPlant Foods Are NOT Safe... The W.H.O. Confirms It!\n\n[https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/natural-toxins-in-food](https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/natural-toxins-in-food)\n\nNutritional Daily Values are defined by the Food and Nutrition Board of the National Research Council / National Academy of Sciences. These nutritional needs are based on the Standard American Diet and should differ from a carnivore diet. But for the sake of making all things equal, ribeye still comes out very nutrient-dense in terms of Daily Value (DV) %s.\u2800\u2060  \nRibeye steak has nearly all the essential minerals and essential vitamins. Ribeyes also have a good amount of omega-3 and 6 fatty acids and Choline. Steaks also do have trace amounts of Vitamin C but on a carnivore diet, carnivores thrive without much Vitamin C.  \nRibeyes (all beef) also contain Creatine and Carnosine which are not found in plant foods. Creatine plays a key role in energy regulation in the brain and muscles.\u2060  \nPer the USDA database, ribeye is missing Biotin (B7) but you can get healthy doses from dairy, liver, salmon, and egg yolk. Chromium is missing but can be found in eggs, fish, and liver. Molybdenum is missing but can be found in eggs and liver.\u2060  \nEat ribeye with eggs, liver, and/or fish. Daily Value % is covered.\u2060  \nDaily Values are created as \u201cthe most authoritative source of information on nutrient allowances for healthy people.\u201d Then, if you eat ribeye, you are healthy people.\u2060","body_html":"<div class=\"md\"><p>This is the only study that I know of that compared a mostly plant based diet against a mostly animal based diet. (The carnivores were the most healthy):</p>\n\n<p><a href=\"https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/fullarticle/1153267\">https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/fullarticle/1153267</a></p>\n\n<p>What did our ancestors eat during the stone age? Mostly meat:</p>\n\n<p><a href=\"https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2021/04/210405113606.htm\">https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2021/04/210405113606.htm</a></p>\n\n<p>On April 28, 1947, Dr. L. L. Savage of the University of Chicago started a 40-day trial of an all-pemmican diet. The pemmican supplied Dr. Savage contained 1.7% moisture, 41% protein, 56.5% fat, and 75.6% of the calories were furnished by fat; salt was not used in the formulation. Two months after the study was initiated, he concludes: \u201cPemmican came as close as any to the ultimate ideal of a concentrated \u2018pill\u2019 diet.\u201d</p>\n\n<p>Meat contains vitamin c and is known to cure scurvy:\u00a0<a href=\"https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0309174006002701?via%3Dihub\">https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0309174006002701?via%3Dihub</a>\u00a0\u00a0</p>\n\n<p>One of the biggest fiber myths out there is that it helps with bowel health. One study found that eliminating fiber helped with constipation:\u00a0<a href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22969234/\">https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22969234/</a>\u00a0\u00a0</p>\n\n<p>One study found that fiber didn\u2019t affect the gut microbiome diversity but caused gas and dysbiosis:\u00a0<a href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29757343/\">https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29757343/</a></p>\n\n<p>Carbs are not necessary, in fact, according to the Food and Nutrition Board of the Institute of Medicine of the US National Academies of Sciences, 'The lower limit of dietary carbohydrate compatible with life apparently is zero, provided that adequate amounts of protein and fat are consumed'.</p>\n\n<p>Plant Foods Are NOT Safe... The W.H.O. Confirms It!</p>\n\n<p><a href=\"https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/natural-toxins-in-food\">https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/natural-toxins-in-food</a></p>\n\n<p>Nutritional Daily Values are defined by the Food and Nutrition Board of the National Research Council / National Academy of Sciences. These nutritional needs are based on the Standard American Diet and should differ from a carnivore diet. But for the sake of making all things equal, ribeye still comes out very nutrient-dense in terms of Daily Value (DV) %s.\u2800\u2060<br/>\nRibeye steak has nearly all the essential minerals and essential vitamins. Ribeyes also have a good amount of omega-3 and 6 fatty acids and Choline. Steaks also do have trace amounts of Vitamin C but on a carnivore diet, carnivores thrive without much Vitamin C.<br/>\nRibeyes (all beef) also contain Creatine and Carnosine which are not found in plant foods. Creatine plays a key role in energy regulation in the brain and muscles.\u2060<br/>\nPer the USDA database, ribeye is missing Biotin (B7) but you can get healthy doses from dairy, liver, salmon, and egg yolk. Chromium is missing but can be found in eggs, fish, and liver. Molybdenum is missing but can be found in eggs and liver.\u2060<br/>\nEat ribeye with eggs, liver, and/or fish. Daily Value % is covered.\u2060<br/>\nDaily Values are created as \u201cthe most authoritative source of information on nutrient allowances for healthy people.\u201d Then, if you eat ribeye, you are healthy people.\u2060</p>\n</div>","can_gild":false,"can_mod_post":false,"collapsed":false,"collapsed_because_crowd_control":null,"collapsed_reason":null,"collapsed_reason_code":null,"comment_type":null,"controversiality":0,"created":1746562435.0,"created_utc":1746562435.0,"distinguished":null,"downs":0,"edited":false,"gilded":0,"gildings":{},"id":"mqy263j","is_submitter":false,"likes":null,"link_id":"t3_1hl1aeg","locked":false,"mod_note":null,"mod_reason_by":null,"mod_reason_title":null,"mod_reports":[],"name":"t1_mqy263j","no_follow":true,"num_reports":null,"parent_id":"t3_1hl1aeg","permalink":"/r/askscience/comments/1hl1aeg/why_does_red_meat_have_a_higher_chance_of_causing/mqy263j/","removal_reason":null,"replies":"","report_reasons":null,"saved":false,"score":1,"score_hidden":true,"send_replies":true,"stickied":false,"subreddit":"askscience","subreddit_id":"t5_2qm4e","subreddit_name_prefixed":"r/askscience","subreddit_type":"public","top_awarded_type":null,"total_awards_received":0,"treatment_tags":[],"unrepliable_reason":null,"ups":1,"user_reports":[]},{"all_awardings":[],"approved_at_utc":null,"approved_by":null,"archived":false,"associated_award":null,"author":"cjbartoz","author_flair_background_color":null,"author_flair_css_class":null,"author_flair_richtext":[],"author_flair_template_id":null,"author_flair_text":null,"author_flair_text_color":null,"author_flair_type":"text","author_fullname":"t2_5tgxizmtc","author_is_blocked":false,"author_patreon_flair":false,"author_premium":false,"awarders":[],"banned_at_utc":null,"banned_by":null,"body":"This is the only study that I know of that compared a mostly plant based diet against a mostly animal based diet. (The carnivores were the most healthy):\n\n[https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/fullarticle/1153267](https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/fullarticle/1153267)\n\nWhat did our ancestors eat during the stone age? Mostly meat:\n\n[https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2021/04/210405113606.htm](https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2021/04/210405113606.htm)\n\nOn April 28, 1947, Dr. L. L. Savage of the University of Chicago started a 40-day trial of an all-pemmican diet. The pemmican supplied Dr. Savage contained 1.7% moisture, 41% protein, 56.5% fat, and 75.6% of the calories were furnished by fat; salt was not used in the formulation. Two months after the study was initiated, he concludes: \u201cPemmican came as close as any to the ultimate ideal of a concentrated \u2018pill\u2019 diet.\u201d\n\nMeat contains vitamin c and is known to cure scurvy: [https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0309174006002701?via%3Dihub](https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0309174006002701?via%3Dihub)\u00a0\u00a0\n\nOne of the biggest fiber myths out there is that it helps with bowel health. One study found that eliminating fiber helped with constipation: [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22969234/](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22969234/)\u00a0\u00a0\n\nOne study found that fiber didn\u2019t affect the gut microbiome diversity but caused gas and dysbiosis: [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29757343/](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29757343/)\n\nCarbs are not necessary, in fact, according to the Food and Nutrition Board of the Institute of Medicine of the US National Academies of Sciences, 'The lower limit of dietary carbohydrate compatible with life apparently is zero, provided that adequate amounts of protein and fat are consumed'.\n\nPlant Foods Are NOT Safe... The W.H.O. Confirms It!\n\n[https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/natural-toxins-in-food](https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/natural-toxins-in-food)\n\nNutritional Daily Values are defined by the Food and Nutrition Board of the National Research Council / National Academy of Sciences. These nutritional needs are based on the Standard American Diet and should differ from a carnivore diet. But for the sake of making all things equal, ribeye still comes out very nutrient-dense in terms of Daily Value (DV) %s.\u2800\u2060  \nRibeye steak has nearly all the essential minerals and essential vitamins. Ribeyes also have a good amount of omega-3 and 6 fatty acids and Choline. Steaks also do have trace amounts of Vitamin C but on a carnivore diet, carnivores thrive without much Vitamin C.  \nRibeyes (all beef) also contain Creatine and Carnosine which are not found in plant foods. Creatine plays a key role in energy regulation in the brain and muscles.\u2060  \nPer the USDA database, ribeye is missing Biotin (B7) but you can get healthy doses from dairy, liver, salmon, and egg yolk. Chromium is missing but can be found in eggs, fish, and liver. Molybdenum is missing but can be found in eggs and liver.\u2060  \nEat ribeye with eggs, liver, and/or fish. Daily Value % is covered.\u2060  \nDaily Values are created as \u201cthe most authoritative source of information on nutrient allowances for healthy people.\u201d Then, if you eat ribeye, you are healthy people.\u2060","body_html":"<div class=\"md\"><p>This is the only study that I know of that compared a mostly plant based diet against a mostly animal based diet. (The carnivores were the most healthy):</p>\n\n<p><a href=\"https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/fullarticle/1153267\">https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/fullarticle/1153267</a></p>\n\n<p>What did our ancestors eat during the stone age? Mostly meat:</p>\n\n<p><a href=\"https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2021/04/210405113606.htm\">https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2021/04/210405113606.htm</a></p>\n\n<p>On April 28, 1947, Dr. L. L. Savage of the University of Chicago started a 40-day trial of an all-pemmican diet. The pemmican supplied Dr. Savage contained 1.7% moisture, 41% protein, 56.5% fat, and 75.6% of the calories were furnished by fat; salt was not used in the formulation. Two months after the study was initiated, he concludes: \u201cPemmican came as close as any to the ultimate ideal of a concentrated \u2018pill\u2019 diet.\u201d</p>\n\n<p>Meat contains vitamin c and is known to cure scurvy: <a href=\"https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0309174006002701?via%3Dihub\">https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0309174006002701?via%3Dihub</a>\u00a0\u00a0</p>\n\n<p>One of the biggest fiber myths out there is that it helps with bowel health. One study found that eliminating fiber helped with constipation: <a href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22969234/\">https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22969234/</a>\u00a0\u00a0</p>\n\n<p>One study found that fiber didn\u2019t affect the gut microbiome diversity but caused gas and dysbiosis: <a href=\"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29757343/\">https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29757343/</a></p>\n\n<p>Carbs are not necessary, in fact, according to the Food and Nutrition Board of the Institute of Medicine of the US National Academies of Sciences, 'The lower limit of dietary carbohydrate compatible with life apparently is zero, provided that adequate amounts of protein and fat are consumed'.</p>\n\n<p>Plant Foods Are NOT Safe... The W.H.O. Confirms It!</p>\n\n<p><a href=\"https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/natural-toxins-in-food\">https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/natural-toxins-in-food</a></p>\n\n<p>Nutritional Daily Values are defined by the Food and Nutrition Board of the National Research Council / National Academy of Sciences. These nutritional needs are based on the Standard American Diet and should differ from a carnivore diet. But for the sake of making all things equal, ribeye still comes out very nutrient-dense in terms of Daily Value (DV) %s.\u2800\u2060<br/>\nRibeye steak has nearly all the essential minerals and essential vitamins. Ribeyes also have a good amount of omega-3 and 6 fatty acids and Choline. Steaks also do have trace amounts of Vitamin C but on a carnivore diet, carnivores thrive without much Vitamin C.<br/>\nRibeyes (all beef) also contain Creatine and Carnosine which are not found in plant foods. Creatine plays a key role in energy regulation in the brain and muscles.\u2060<br/>\nPer the USDA database, ribeye is missing Biotin (B7) but you can get healthy doses from dairy, liver, salmon, and egg yolk. Chromium is missing but can be found in eggs, fish, and liver. Molybdenum is missing but can be found in eggs and liver.\u2060<br/>\nEat ribeye with eggs, liver, and/or fish. Daily Value % is covered.\u2060<br/>\nDaily Values are created as \u201cthe most authoritative source of information on nutrient allowances for healthy people.\u201d Then, if you eat ribeye, you are healthy people.\u2060</p>\n</div>","can_gild":false,"can_mod_post":false,"collapsed":false,"collapsed_because_crowd_control":null,"collapsed_reason":null,"collapsed_reason_code":null,"comment_type":null,"controversiality":0,"created":1746561779.0,"created_utc":1746561779.0,"distinguished":null,"downs":0,"edited":false,"gilded":0,"gildings":{},"id":"mqxzwbd","is_submitter":false,"likes":null,"link_id":"t3_1hl1aeg","locked":false,"mod_note":null,"mod_reason_by":null,"mod_reason_title":null,"mod_reports":[],"name":"t1_mqxzwbd","no_follow":true,"num_reports":null,"parent_id":"t3_1hl1aeg","permalink":"/r/askscience/comments/1hl1aeg/why_does_red_meat_have_a_higher_chance_of_causing/mqxzwbd/","removal_reason":null,"replies":"","report_reasons":null,"saved":false,"score":1,"score_hidden":true,"send_replies":true,"stickied":false,"subreddit":"askscience","subreddit_id":"t5_2qm4e","subreddit_name_prefixed":"r/askscience","subreddit_type":"public","top_awarded_type":null,"total_awards_received":0,"treatment_tags":[],"unrepliable_reason":null,"ups":1,"user_reports":[]},{"all_awardings":[],"approved_at_utc":null,"approved_by":null,"archived":false,"associated_award":null,"author":"TheFluffyEngineer","author_flair_background_color":null,"author_flair_css_class":null,"author_flair_richtext":[],"author_flair_template_id":null,"author_flair_text":null,"author_flair_text_color":null,"author_flair_type":"text","author_fullname":"t2_1lvh00goyf","author_is_blocked":false,"author_patreon_flair":false,"author_premium":false,"awarders":[],"banned_at_utc":null,"banned_by":null,"body":"Even if we set aside biology as a factor, there is only so much speed you can get out of any given mechanical system. \n\nThis is going to sound unrelated, but stick with me.\n\nThere's a reason there are so many different engine types, makes, models, etc. Ranging from sterling to jet turbine to wankle to ICE, we have developed *many* different engine types over the years. The type I know the most about are ICE (internal combustion engines, generally used to describe gasoline engines) so I will use those as an example. \n\nEven in that category, you have fundamentally different types of engines. Both 2-stroke and 4-stroke engines (2-stroke are typically found on smaller gasoline driven objects like yard tools, and 4-stroke on larger objects like cars) are ICE, but run on very different concepts. \n\nI know a wider variety of 4-stroke, so I'll focus on those. Within the category of 4-stoke engines, you have a wide variety of shapes, sizes, speeds, materials, etc. Would you like 1 cylinder? 2? 3? 4? 5? 6? I have heard of 4-stroke engines using every number of cylinders up through 12, and I've heard of 16 and 24 cylinder 4-stroke engines. All of them serve different purposes. What about shape? In line? Horizontally opposed? V? W? Radial? Again, all get used, and all serve different purposes. \n\nCars were stuck for a few years at around the 250 mph mark. Then we made pretty big strides in the air ramming department (turbochargers and superchargers), and have now breached the 300mph mark. \n\nEven with that, we are approaching (according to my mechanical engineering professors) the limit of what we can squeeze out of ICE motors. There is only so much heat dissipation we can do, only so many RPMs we can get, only so many cylinders, and we are reaching the limit. There's a reason farming and mining equipment uses diesel fuel, why airplanes use avgas, and why aircraft carriers don't use a traditional engine at all. There is a limit to what we can get out of those systems, and we are approaching it for many of them.\n\nEvery time we have needed to make huge strides in power very quickly, we have developed either new engine types, or new ways to cram air and/or fuel into them. When we wanted cars and planes, we had to develop piston engines over steam engines. When we wanted to break the sound barrier, we had to do away with propellers and piston engines and develop jet engines. When we wanted to build *massive* mining equipment, we did away with gasoline and used diesel. Space travel requires wholly new types of fuel that have to be manufactured fully synthetically. When we reached the limit of carbureted engines, we developed fuel injection.\n\nFor man-made objects, we innovate to get faster, stronger, lighter, and just all around better. \n\n\nBut biology can't do that. Sure, evolution is a thing, but it doesn't produce *better.* Evolution produces \"good enough to survive in the current environment.\" From that perspective, crocodiles are the *best* macroscopic life there is. They have been around for hundreds of millions of years with no major changes. They are fundamentally the same as they were 200+ million years ago. \n\nBut humans? From a mechanical perspective, humans are *dogshit* at just about everything. Our backs suck, our hips suck, our feet suck, our bodies are *terrible*. And horses? Sure, they're better than we are, but they still suck. Just look at the back problems they have. \n\nPutting skeletal structures aside, tendons can only be so strong, metabolisms so fast and efficient, muscles so powerful, etc. All these things have to fundamentally change to make any meaningful strides in biological speed, and that takes a *loooong* time. We have made larger advancements in engine technology in the 21st century than biology has in the last 2000 years (as far as horses are concerned). If you compare modern horses to horses from 2000 years ago, they're bigger, stronger, faster, and better in just about every way I know of except calorie consumption. But not by nearly as much as a Koenigsegg Jesko Absolut is over a Bugatti Veyron.\n\nIn all the things that have gotten faster, stronger, more efficient, or just all around better since Secretariat, we have been able to either boost evolution (ie vaccines), or they have been man made. Evolution is slow, and doesn't select for fastest or strongest. It doesn't even select for better, it selects for \"good enough to reproduce.\" \n\nSo why haven't horses gotten meaningfully better? Because evolution doesn't allow it. Even with human intervention, there is a limit to how quickly tendons and muscles can get stronger, how much force bones can take, how efficiently lungs can process oxygen, how hast hearts can pump, and how efficient metabolisms are. And that limit is best measured in centuries. \n\nHow did humans do it? Strength by numbers. Sure, technique, nutrition, exercise science, etc. all helps, but it's a numbers game. When you get hundreds of millions of tries to make something better every year, it gets better quickly. When you get 1% that iteration count? It takes 100 times longer.\n\n\nTLDR: Humans got better in the last 100 years partially by science, and partially by shear numbers. Machines did it by innovation. But horses get neither.","body_html":"<div class=\"md\"><p>Even if we set aside biology as a factor, there is only so much speed you can get out of any given mechanical system. </p>\n\n<p>This is going to sound unrelated, but stick with me.</p>\n\n<p>There's a reason there are so many different engine types, makes, models, etc. Ranging from sterling to jet turbine to wankle to ICE, we have developed <em>many</em> different engine types over the years. The type I know the most about are ICE (internal combustion engines, generally used to describe gasoline engines) so I will use those as an example. </p>\n\n<p>Even in that category, you have fundamentally different types of engines. Both 2-stroke and 4-stroke engines (2-stroke are typically found on smaller gasoline driven objects like yard tools, and 4-stroke on larger objects like cars) are ICE, but run on very different concepts. </p>\n\n<p>I know a wider variety of 4-stroke, so I'll focus on those. Within the category of 4-stoke engines, you have a wide variety of shapes, sizes, speeds, materials, etc. Would you like 1 cylinder? 2? 3? 4? 5? 6? I have heard of 4-stroke engines using every number of cylinders up through 12, and I've heard of 16 and 24 cylinder 4-stroke engines. All of them serve different purposes. What about shape? In line? Horizontally opposed? V? W? Radial? Again, all get used, and all serve different purposes. </p>\n\n<p>Cars were stuck for a few years at around the 250 mph mark. Then we made pretty big strides in the air ramming department (turbochargers and superchargers), and have now breached the 300mph mark. </p>\n\n<p>Even with that, we are approaching (according to my mechanical engineering professors) the limit of what we can squeeze out of ICE motors. There is only so much heat dissipation we can do, only so many RPMs we can get, only so many cylinders, and we are reaching the limit. There's a reason farming and mining equipment uses diesel fuel, why airplanes use avgas, and why aircraft carriers don't use a traditional engine at all. There is a limit to what we can get out of those systems, and we are approaching it for many of them.</p>\n\n<p>Every time we have needed to make huge strides in power very quickly, we have developed either new engine types, or new ways to cram air and/or fuel into them. When we wanted cars and planes, we had to develop piston engines over steam engines. When we wanted to break the sound barrier, we had to do away with propellers and piston engines and develop jet engines. When we wanted to build <em>massive</em> mining equipment, we did away with gasoline and used diesel. Space travel requires wholly new types of fuel that have to be manufactured fully synthetically. When we reached the limit of carbureted engines, we developed fuel injection.</p>\n\n<p>For man-made objects, we innovate to get faster, stronger, lighter, and just all around better. </p>\n\n<p>But biology can't do that. Sure, evolution is a thing, but it doesn't produce <em>better.</em> Evolution produces "good enough to survive in the current environment." From that perspective, crocodiles are the <em>best</em> macroscopic life there is. They have been around for hundreds of millions of years with no major changes. They are fundamentally the same as they were 200+ million years ago. </p>\n\n<p>But humans? From a mechanical perspective, humans are <em>dogshit</em> at just about everything. Our backs suck, our hips suck, our feet suck, our bodies are <em>terrible</em>. And horses? Sure, they're better than we are, but they still suck. Just look at the back problems they have. </p>\n\n<p>Putting skeletal structures aside, tendons can only be so strong, metabolisms so fast and efficient, muscles so powerful, etc. All these things have to fundamentally change to make any meaningful strides in biological speed, and that takes a <em>loooong</em> time. We have made larger advancements in engine technology in the 21st century than biology has in the last 2000 years (as far as horses are concerned). If you compare modern horses to horses from 2000 years ago, they're bigger, stronger, faster, and better in just about every way I know of except calorie consumption. But not by nearly as much as a Koenigsegg Jesko Absolut is over a Bugatti Veyron.</p>\n\n<p>In all the things that have gotten faster, stronger, more efficient, or just all around better since Secretariat, we have been able to either boost evolution (ie vaccines), or they have been man made. Evolution is slow, and doesn't select for fastest or strongest. It doesn't even select for better, it selects for "good enough to reproduce." </p>\n\n<p>So why haven't horses gotten meaningfully better? Because evolution doesn't allow it. Even with human intervention, there is a limit to how quickly tendons and muscles can get stronger, how much force bones can take, how efficiently lungs can process oxygen, how hast hearts can pump, and how efficient metabolisms are. And that limit is best measured in centuries. </p>\n\n<p>How did humans do it? Strength by numbers. Sure, technique, nutrition, exercise science, etc. all helps, but it's a numbers game. When you get hundreds of millions of tries to make something better every year, it gets better quickly. When you get 1% that iteration count? It takes 100 times longer.</p>\n\n<p>TLDR: Humans got better in the last 100 years partially by science, and partially by shear numbers. Machines did it by innovation. But horses get neither.</p>\n</div>","can_gild":false,"can_mod_post":false,"collapsed":false,"collapsed_because_crowd_control":null,"collapsed_reason":null,"collapsed_reason_code":null,"comment_type":null,"controversiality":0,"created":1746501750.0,"created_utc":1746501750.0,"distinguished":null,"downs":0,"edited":false,"gilded":0,"gildings":{},"id":"mqtqx2c","is_submitter":false,"likes":null,"link_id":"t3_1kf8ntg","locked":false,"mod_note":null,"mod_reason_by":null,"mod_reason_title":null,"mod_reports":[],"name":"t1_mqtqx2c","no_follow":true,"num_reports":null,"parent_id":"t3_1kf8ntg","permalink":"/r/askscience/comments/1kf8ntg/why_havent_horses_gotten_any_faster_over_time/mqtqx2c/","removal_reason":null,"replies":"","report_reasons":null,"saved":false,"score":1,"score_hidden":true,"send_replies":true,"stickied":false,"subreddit":"askscience","subreddit_id":"t5_2qm4e","subreddit_name_prefixed":"r/askscience","subreddit_type":"public","top_awarded_type":null,"total_awards_received":0,"treatment_tags":[],"unrepliable_reason":null,"ups":1,"user_reports":[]},{"all_awardings":[],"approved_at_utc":null,"approved_by":null,"archived":false,"associated_award":null,"author":"Teach-","author_flair_background_color":null,"author_flair_css_class":null,"author_flair_richtext":[],"author_flair_template_id":null,"author_flair_text":null,"author_flair_text_color":null,"author_flair_type":"text","author_fullname":"t2_4h05kor","author_is_blocked":false,"author_patreon_flair":false,"author_premium":false,"awarders":[],"banned_at_utc":null,"banned_by":null,"body":"The fastest human running speed, set by Usain Bolt in 2009, is probably near the peak. The last century of sport has been more about reaching potential, not improving. Over a similar time period, humans selectively bred horses, and the fastest recorded was in 2008, not 1973. Winning Brew set this record across two furlongs at Penn National.\n\n\nThe similar time period I mention is modern athletic and biological science, about 125 years to date.\n\n\n\nAdditionally, top speed for horses is not necessarily the point, and neither is it for humans. Usain Bolt cannot maintain that speed for more than 100 yards, and neither can Secretariat do so for an entire race.\n\n\nThe future may hold more for us and horses, but across a timeline, physical progress has been about the same for measuring top speed.","body_html":"<div class=\"md\"><p>The fastest human running speed, set by Usain Bolt in 2009, is probably near the peak. The last century of sport has been more about reaching potential, not improving. Over a similar time period, humans selectively bred horses, and the fastest recorded was in 2008, not 1973. Winning Brew set this record across two furlongs at Penn National.</p>\n\n<p>The similar time period I mention is modern athletic and biological science, about 125 years to date.</p>\n\n<p>Additionally, top speed for horses is not necessarily the point, and neither is it for humans. Usain Bolt cannot maintain that speed for more than 100 yards, and neither can Secretariat do so for an entire race.</p>\n\n<p>The future may hold more for us and horses, but across a timeline, physical progress has been about the same for measuring top speed.</p>\n</div>","can_gild":false,"can_mod_post":false,"collapsed":false,"collapsed_because_crowd_control":null,"collapsed_reason":null,"collapsed_reason_code":null,"comment_type":null,"controversiality":0,"created":1746483454.0,"created_utc":1746483454.0,"distinguished":null,"downs":0,"edited":false,"gilded":0,"gildings":{},"id":"mqsah58","is_submitter":false,"likes":null,"link_id":"t3_1kf8ntg","locked":false,"mod_note":null,"mod_reason_by":null,"mod_reason_title":null,"mod_reports":[],"name":"t1_mqsah58","no_follow":true,"num_reports":null,"parent_id":"t3_1kf8ntg","permalink":"/r/askscience/comments/1kf8ntg/why_havent_horses_gotten_any_faster_over_time/mqsah58/","removal_reason":null,"replies":"","report_reasons":null,"saved":false,"score":1,"score_hidden":true,"send_replies":true,"stickied":false,"subreddit":"askscience","subreddit_id":"t5_2qm4e","subreddit_name_prefixed":"r/askscience","subreddit_type":"public","top_awarded_type":null,"total_awards_received":0,"treatment_tags":[],"unrepliable_reason":null,"ups":1,"user_reports":[]},{"all_awardings":[],"approved_at_utc":null,"approved_by":null,"archived":false,"associated_award":null,"author":"NoveltyAccountHater","author_flair_background_color":null,"author_flair_css_class":null,"author_flair_richtext":[],"author_flair_template_id":null,"author_flair_text":null,"author_flair_text_color":null,"author_flair_type":"text","author_fullname":"t2_3m9mf","author_is_blocked":false,"author_patreon_flair":false,"author_premium":false,"awarders":[],"banned_at_utc":null,"banned_by":null,"body":"The first factor is commonly cited, but probably apocryphal.  Many modern people spend nearly as much time indoors around other people well before cold/flu season peaks Dec-Feb in the northern hemisphere.  (In hotter climates, people are more likely to spend summer months indoors in constant AC).\n\nThe low humidity of winter air is a factor -- [viruses often survive better for transmission in low humidity](https://news.stanford.edu/stories/2024/03/low-humidity-boon-viruses).  Cold air has a lower saturation point for water vapor, that is cold air can carry less water than warmer air before it has to condense into water; since hence winter air tends to be a lot drier than summer months.\n\nAlso, research has shown that your nose being exposed to cold temperatures drastically reduces its immune response.  E.g., in an in vitro study they've shown just ~15 minutes at 4.4\u00b0C ambient temp (40\u00b0F) will have their nose temperature drop by 5\u00b0C and their extracellular vesicles (EVs) providing first line of defense for pathogens will decrease by 40% due to the drop in nose-body temperature, the ones that survive also seem to be less capable at stopping viruses/bacteria (releasing 77% fewer special receptors as decoys and fewer microRNA strands to neutralize viruses).\n\nhttps://advances.massgeneral.org/otolaryngology/article.aspx?id=1533\n\nhttps://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0091674922014233","body_html":"<div class=\"md\"><p>The first factor is commonly cited, but probably apocryphal.  Many modern people spend nearly as much time indoors around other people well before cold/flu season peaks Dec-Feb in the northern hemisphere.  (In hotter climates, people are more likely to spend summer months indoors in constant AC).</p>\n\n<p>The low humidity of winter air is a factor -- <a href=\"https://news.stanford.edu/stories/2024/03/low-humidity-boon-viruses\">viruses often survive better for transmission in low humidity</a>.  Cold air has a lower saturation point for water vapor, that is cold air can carry less water than warmer air before it has to condense into water; since hence winter air tends to be a lot drier than summer months.</p>\n\n<p>Also, research has shown that your nose being exposed to cold temperatures drastically reduces its immune response.  E.g., in an in vitro study they've shown just ~15 minutes at 4.4\u00b0C ambient temp (40\u00b0F) will have their nose temperature drop by 5\u00b0C and their extracellular vesicles (EVs) providing first line of defense for pathogens will decrease by 40% due to the drop in nose-body temperature, the ones that survive also seem to be less capable at stopping viruses/bacteria (releasing 77% fewer special receptors as decoys and fewer microRNA strands to neutralize viruses).</p>\n\n<p><a href=\"https://advances.massgeneral.org/otolaryngology/article.aspx?id=1533\">https://advances.massgeneral.org/otolaryngology/article.aspx?id=1533</a></p>\n\n<p><a href=\"https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0091674922014233\">https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0091674922014233</a></p>\n</div>","can_gild":false,"can_mod_post":false,"collapsed":false,"collapsed_because_crowd_control":null,"collapsed_reason":null,"collapsed_reason_code":null,"comment_type":null,"controversiality":0,"created":1746474384.0,"created_utc":1746474384.0,"distinguished":null,"downs":0,"edited":false,"gilded":0,"gildings":{},"id":"mqrgjpb","is_submitter":false,"likes":null,"link_id":"t3_1kfbgd5","locked":false,"mod_note":null,"mod_reason_by":null,"mod_reason_title":null,"mod_reports":[],"name":"t1_mqrgjpb","no_follow":true,"num_reports":null,"parent_id":"t1_mqpmiv3","permalink":"/r/askscience/comments/1kfbgd5/what_is_the_relationship_between_the_cold_weather/mqrgjpb/","removal_reason":null,"replies":"","report_reasons":null,"saved":false,"score":1,"score_hidden":true,"send_replies":true,"stickied":false,"subreddit":"askscience","subreddit_id":"t5_2qm4e","subreddit_name_prefixed":"r/askscience","subreddit_type":"public","top_awarded_type":null,"total_awards_received":0,"treatment_tags":[],"unrepliable_reason":null,"ups":1,"user_reports":[]},{"all_awardings":[],"approved_at_utc":null,"approved_by":null,"archived":false,"associated_award":null,"author":"Vishnej","author_flair_background_color":null,"author_flair_css_class":null,"author_flair_richtext":[],"author_flair_template_id":null,"author_flair_text":null,"author_flair_text_color":null,"author_flair_type":"text","author_fullname":"t2_9pg8w","author_is_blocked":false,"author_patreon_flair":false,"author_premium":false,"awarders":[],"banned_at_utc":null,"banned_by":null,"body":"I have spent most of my life dismissing \"Put warmer clothes on, or you'll catch a cold\" as an 'old wives tale', as anecdotal rumor that isn't compatible with modern medical science.\n\nThen I spent a number of years working job that often required irregularly spending some time outside in the cold in October/November.  The sheer number of long cold/flu episodes that, following a long period of good health, began immediately after a day outside, are proof enough for me.  Whatever the reason, my body is highly susceptible to sinus infection from cold exposure.\n\nI also get lingering inflammatory pneumonia for \n a couple months after a severe sinus infection.\n\nI am somewhat convinced by a variety of different studies that vitamin D is a huge factor in cold/flu season, and that most of us living typical 2025 lifestyles (ESPECIALLY those with dark skin) should be on D3 supplements.","body_html":"<div class=\"md\"><p>I have spent most of my life dismissing "Put warmer clothes on, or you'll catch a cold" as an 'old wives tale', as anecdotal rumor that isn't compatible with modern medical science.</p>\n\n<p>Then I spent a number of years working job that often required irregularly spending some time outside in the cold in October/November.  The sheer number of long cold/flu episodes that, following a long period of good health, began immediately after a day outside, are proof enough for me.  Whatever the reason, my body is highly susceptible to sinus infection from cold exposure.</p>\n\n<p>I also get lingering inflammatory pneumonia for \n a couple months after a severe sinus infection.</p>\n\n<p>I am somewhat convinced by a variety of different studies that vitamin D is a huge factor in cold/flu season, and that most of us living typical 2025 lifestyles (ESPECIALLY those with dark skin) should be on D3 supplements.</p>\n</div>","can_gild":false,"can_mod_post":false,"collapsed":false,"collapsed_because_crowd_control":null,"collapsed_reason":null,"collapsed_reason_code":null,"comment_type":null,"controversiality":0,"created":1746472480.0,"created_utc":1746472480.0,"distinguished":null,"downs":0,"edited":false,"gilded":0,"gildings":{},"id":"mqra64b","is_submitter":false,"likes":null,"link_id":"t3_1kfbgd5","locked":false,"mod_note":null,"mod_reason_by":null,"mod_reason_title":null,"mod_reports":[],"name":"t1_mqra64b","no_follow":true,"num_reports":null,"parent_id":"t3_1kfbgd5","permalink":"/r/askscience/comments/1kfbgd5/what_is_the_relationship_between_the_cold_weather/mqra64b/","removal_reason":null,"replies":"","report_reasons":null,"saved":false,"score":1,"score_hidden":true,"send_replies":true,"stickied":false,"subreddit":"askscience","subreddit_id":"t5_2qm4e","subreddit_name_prefixed":"r/askscience","subreddit_type":"public","top_awarded_type":null,"total_awards_received":0,"treatment_tags":[],"unrepliable_reason":null,"ups":1,"user_reports":[]},{"all_awardings":[],"approved_at_utc":null,"approved_by":null,"archived":false,"associated_award":null,"author":"PandaMomentum","author_flair_background_color":null,"author_flair_css_class":null,"author_flair_richtext":[],"author_flair_template_id":null,"author_flair_text":null,"author_flair_text_color":null,"author_flair_type":"text","author_fullname":"t2_5o85y","author_is_blocked":false,"author_patreon_flair":false,"author_premium":false,"awarders":[],"banned_at_utc":null,"banned_by":null,"body":"It is an area of active investigation. There is a [nice readable summary](https://www.aos.wisc.edu/~aos171/book/coldstuff.pdf) of work on the common cold in a New Yorker article by Atul Gawande from a few years back. Gawande relates the story of the isolated town of Spitsbergen, Norway, which despite the cold winter temperatures was free of respiratory infections every year until early summer, when the resupply ships arrived ([Paul and Freese, 1933](https://academic.oup.com/aje/article-abstract/17/3/517/144367)). Also, there is no demonstrated relationship between getting chilled and catching a cold, as repeated controlled experiments have shown.\n\nThere is a real puzzle underneath this: \"The annual prevalence of multiple respiratory viruses (flu, rhinovirus, coronavirus, respiratory syncytial virus) is consistently highest in summer, but its progression to clinical disease is highest in winter (\u00c1lvarez-Arg\u00fcelles et al., 2018; Birger et al., 2018; Galanti et al., 2019; Lee et al., 2012; Shaman et al., 2018).\" ([Wyes et al 2022](https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2589004222010616)). This is true both in the northern and southern hemispheres. Near the equator, progression to disease is related to the rainy season.\n\nWyes et al hypothesize that seasonality is related not to temperature or humidity or being enclosed, but rather to the day-night cycle impacting circadian rhythms and the immune system. They do not offer a strong test of this hypothesis. Other research on potential pathways indicate that the immune response in nasal cells is lowered by colder ambient temperatures ([Huang et al 2023](https://www.jacionline.org/article/S0091-6749(22)01423-3/fulltext)), which may account for some infections but does not explain transmission and disease progression in the tropics (neither does the day-light cycle). \n\nLikely there are multiple reasons, especially given the variety of viruses that cause the common cold and respiratory infections.","body_html":"<div class=\"md\"><p>It is an area of active investigation. There is a <a href=\"https://www.aos.wisc.edu/%7Eaos171/book/coldstuff.pdf\">nice readable summary</a> of work on the common cold in a New Yorker article by Atul Gawande from a few years back. Gawande relates the story of the isolated town of Spitsbergen, Norway, which despite the cold winter temperatures was free of respiratory infections every year until early summer, when the resupply ships arrived (<a href=\"https://academic.oup.com/aje/article-abstract/17/3/517/144367\">Paul and Freese, 1933</a>). Also, there is no demonstrated relationship between getting chilled and catching a cold, as repeated controlled experiments have shown.</p>\n\n<p>There is a real puzzle underneath this: "The annual prevalence of multiple respiratory viruses (flu, rhinovirus, coronavirus, respiratory syncytial virus) is consistently highest in summer, but its progression to clinical disease is highest in winter (\u00c1lvarez-Arg\u00fcelles et al., 2018; Birger et al., 2018; Galanti et al., 2019; Lee et al., 2012; Shaman et al., 2018)." (<a href=\"https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2589004222010616\">Wyes et al 2022</a>). This is true both in the northern and southern hemispheres. Near the equator, progression to disease is related to the rainy season.</p>\n\n<p>Wyes et al hypothesize that seasonality is related not to temperature or humidity or being enclosed, but rather to the day-night cycle impacting circadian rhythms and the immune system. They do not offer a strong test of this hypothesis. Other research on potential pathways indicate that the immune response in nasal cells is lowered by colder ambient temperatures (<a href=\"https://www.jacionline.org/article/S0091-6749(22\">Huang et al 2023</a>01423-3/fulltext)), which may account for some infections but does not explain transmission and disease progression in the tropics (neither does the day-light cycle). </p>\n\n<p>Likely there are multiple reasons, especially given the variety of viruses that cause the common cold and respiratory infections.</p>\n</div>","can_gild":false,"can_mod_post":false,"collapsed":false,"collapsed_because_crowd_control":null,"collapsed_reason":null,"collapsed_reason_code":null,"comment_type":null,"controversiality":0,"created":1746457780.0,"created_utc":1746457780.0,"distinguished":null,"downs":0,"edited":false,"gilded":0,"gildings":{},"id":"mqpvvgi","is_submitter":false,"likes":null,"link_id":"t3_1kfbgd5","locked":false,"mod_note":null,"mod_reason_by":null,"mod_reason_title":null,"mod_reports":[],"name":"t1_mqpvvgi","no_follow":true,"num_reports":null,"parent_id":"t3_1kfbgd5","permalink":"/r/askscience/comments/1kfbgd5/what_is_the_relationship_between_the_cold_weather/mqpvvgi/","removal_reason":null,"replies":"","report_reasons":null,"saved":false,"score":1,"score_hidden":true,"send_replies":true,"stickied":false,"subreddit":"askscience","subreddit_id":"t5_2qm4e","subreddit_name_prefixed":"r/askscience","subreddit_type":"public","top_awarded_type":null,"total_awards_received":0,"treatment_tags":[],"unrepliable_reason":null,"ups":1,"user_reports":[]},{"all_awardings":[],"approved_at_utc":null,"approved_by":null,"archived":false,"associated_award":null,"author":"chance909","author_flair_background_color":null,"author_flair_css_class":null,"author_flair_richtext":[],"author_flair_template_id":null,"author_flair_text":null,"author_flair_text_color":null,"author_flair_type":"text","author_fullname":"t2_4qo8e","author_is_blocked":false,"author_patreon_flair":false,"author_premium":false,"awarders":[],"banned_at_utc":null,"banned_by":null,"body":"A primary reason is relative humidity.\n\nCold air has less ability to hold moisture, this results in less humidity, which in turn results in *thinner nasal mucus.*  Mucus in your upper respiratory tract presents a physical barrier to viruses, and the thinning of this mucus due to decreased humidity results in  more viral access to the nasal and respiratory mucosa.\n\n  \n[https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0966842X21000731](https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0966842X21000731)","body_html":"<div class=\"md\"><p>A primary reason is relative humidity.</p>\n\n<p>Cold air has less ability to hold moisture, this results in less humidity, which in turn results in <em>thinner nasal mucus.</em>  Mucus in your upper respiratory tract presents a physical barrier to viruses, and the thinning of this mucus due to decreased humidity results in  more viral access to the nasal and respiratory mucosa.</p>\n\n<p><a href=\"https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0966842X21000731\">https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0966842X21000731</a></p>\n</div>","can_gild":false,"can_mod_post":false,"collapsed":false,"collapsed_because_crowd_control":null,"collapsed_reason":null,"collapsed_reason_code":null,"comment_type":null,"controversiality":0,"created":1746456982.0,"created_utc":1746456982.0,"distinguished":null,"downs":0,"edited":false,"gilded":0,"gildings":{},"id":"mqpt7h1","is_submitter":false,"likes":null,"link_id":"t3_1kfbgd5","locked":false,"mod_note":null,"mod_reason_by":null,"mod_reason_title":null,"mod_reports":[],"name":"t1_mqpt7h1","no_follow":false,"num_reports":null,"parent_id":"t3_1kfbgd5","permalink":"/r/askscience/comments/1kfbgd5/what_is_the_relationship_between_the_cold_weather/mqpt7h1/","removal_reason":null,"replies":"","report_reasons":null,"saved":false,"score":1,"score_hidden":true,"send_replies":true,"stickied":false,"subreddit":"askscience","subreddit_id":"t5_2qm4e","subreddit_name_prefixed":"r/askscience","subreddit_type":"public","top_awarded_type":null,"total_awards_received":0,"treatment_tags":[],"unrepliable_reason":null,"ups":1,"user_reports":[]},{"all_awardings":[],"approved_at_utc":null,"approved_by":null,"archived":false,"associated_award":null,"author":"CrustalTrudger","author_flair_background_color":"","author_flair_css_class":"geo","author_flair_richtext":[],"author_flair_template_id":null,"author_flair_text":"Tectonics | Structural Geology | Geomorphology","author_flair_text_color":"dark","author_flair_type":"text","author_fullname":"t2_ee0f4","author_is_blocked":false,"author_patreon_flair":false,"author_premium":true,"awarders":[],"banned_at_utc":null,"banned_by":null,"body":"The most important thing to start with is that plate tectonic processes are three dimensional. This might seem like a silly thing to emphasize, but we often think about many tectonic environments (like continent-continent collisions) in [cross-section view](https://www.nps.gov/subjects/geology/images/continental-collision-diagram.jpg) or in simple [block diagrams](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continental_collision#/media/File:Continental-continental_convergence_Fig21contcont.gif) that have a third dimension but typically imply a very simple geometry for the colliding margins, i.e. two perfectly straight and parallel continental edges that collide. This perspective tends to color a lot of our thinking with the implied assumption that the when two continental margins collide, that collisional process *happens simultaneously along the margin*. This trips up even people who work on these processes for a living, e.g., see ongoing debates about the timing of any number of continent-continent collisions where the underlying assumption of many papers is that the timing of collision along the entire length of the system should be effectively the same. In reality though, most continental margins are complex, and as such, when they begin to collide, not all parts of the margins will begin colliding at once, e.g., a portion of one portion of a margin that is a *promontory* might collide first where as a portion that is an *embayment* might collide much later - implying that timing of collision can - and arguably should- vary along the length of the system (e.g., [\u015eeng\u00f6r, 1976](https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/geology/article-abstract/4/12/779/187792/Collision-of-irregular-continental-margins)). \n\nWhat does the above have to do with respect to the question? Well, the complexity geometry and exact topology of both colliding margins will play a pretty big role in whether you expect to form (temporary) isolated basins or not. To demonstrate, let's imagine two opposite scenarios. In both we have something akin to the India-Eurasia set up with one side of the continental margin (Eurasia) being much longer than the other (India), the latter of which we can call the \"indenter\". In both scenarios we'll also consider that the larger continent has relatively straight margin but that the margin of the indeter facing it will have complexity: \n\n* In scenario 1, let's imagine the colliding margin of the indenter is effectively triangular shaped in map view with the peak of the triangle near the center and forming a large promontory (i.e., the width of the ocean basin is smallest in the center of the colliding margins and increases toward the edges) . This central area will collide first and broadly, because the rate of collision is proceeding at tectonic rates (i.e., mm to cm per year), the water in the intervening ocean basin will just flow into the (still connected to the open ocean) portion of the narrow subducting portion of the ocean basin. The collision proceeds progressively along its length, closing the ocean basin toward the open ocean and not really setting up a scenario for any portion of ocean basin (or water within it) to be trapped. Now, some amount of seawater will still likely be subducted because the subducted sediments within the ocean basin will typically have some amount of water within pore spaces, etc., but there really is never a truly trapped portion of the basin.\n* In scenario 2, let's imagine instead that the colliding margin of the identer is again triangular shaped, but now with the point of the triangle reversed forming a large embayment. Now when the collision starts, it will be at the very edges of the indentor continent and will proceed inward. Here, a scenario is being set up where this portion of the ocean basin (and some portion of the water within it) may become \"trapped\" once the \"gateways\" at either edge of the indenter continent are fully closed. As collision proceeds, what exactly happens to the water depends a bit on the local details. Without connection to the open ocean, this is basically now a lake and so the water level in that lake becomes subject to the balance of water flowing in (from rivers, groundwater) and water leaving (primarily from evaporation). If evaporation is lower than influx, then some amount of water will be maintained and you could theoretically have some sort of (presumably relatively saline) lakes persist for a while, but that are getting progressively segmented as collision continues. If evaporation is greater than influx, the the water will evaporate and an evaporite deposit will form.\n\nNow, the above is of course extremely simplified, but we can find some kind of analogous examples if we move westward from the India-Eurasia collision into the other portions of the Alpine-Himalayan belt, specifically where Africa and Arabia are colliding with Eurasia. The Mediterranean is effectively a remnant of a former through going ocean (specifically a remnant of [Paratethys](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paratethys) which in turn is a remnant of Neotethys, which in turn was a remnant of the [Tethys](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tethys_Ocean) ocean) and has, in the past, been completely isolated from the global ocean during the [Messinian salinity crisis](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Messinian_salinity_crisis) where it nearly completely dried out, leaving behind massive evaporite (i.e., salt) deposits. In this case, the impetus of that isolation wasn't as simple as scenario 2 (and it obviously wasn't permanent), but it was likely tectonic related, specifically through some subduction processes near the Gibraltar strait that uplifted the area enough to temporarily disconnect the Med from the global ocean (e.g., [Capella et al., 2020](https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ter.12442)). \n\nFurther east and into other former portions of Paratethys, both the Black and Caspian Seas are effectively interpreted as portions of \"remnant ocean basins\" (sensu [Ingersoll et al., 1995](https://www.researchgate.net/publication/313248388_Remnant_ocean_basin)), basically sections of oceanic lithosphere that did not subduct and now persist as \"rigid inclusions\" within a broader collision zone (in detail these were not formally part of the original ocean basin that closed, but rather represent back-arc basins that opened and then partially closed during prolonged collision, e.g., [Zonenshain & Le Pichon, 1986](https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/0040195186901976)). The Black Sea is currently connected to the open ocean via the Mediterranean, but the Caspian is obviously fully closed off hydrologically. Is any of the water in there a remnant of former ocean water? Maybe, but the Caspian (and Black, Aral, Dacian, etc. basins) have had such a complicated history of interconnection with each other and connection with the open ocean over the duration of the Africa-Eurasia and Arabian-Eurasian collision (e.g., [Palcu et al., 2017](https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0921818117300711)) that it becomes quite challenging to really think of it as just left over ocean water (and of course its continued existence requires constant influx of water from rivers that outpaces, or stays equal with, evaporation). \n\nUltimately, hydrologically isolated basins in collisions, whether they form from segmentation of the original ocean basin or later \"successor\" basins that form, can often be sites of evaporite deposits like the Mediterranean example (and many of the other Paratethyan basins) and we can find examples of largely similar tectonic environments in former collisional systems, like the Paradox basin in the western US (e.g., [Barbeau, 2003](https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1046/j.1365-2117.2003.00194.x)). This also highlights that while we think of collisional systems as primarily pushing topography up (i.e., building mountain ranges), because of [lithospheric flexure](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithospheric_flexure), building mountains tends to produce adjacent basins that can complicate the evolution of the former margins and help to, at least temporarily, \"preserve\" low areas that could host some amount of water within the collisional zone (but again, the extent to which any water occupying these regions is truly trapped ocean water depends on a lot of the details and for a body of water to persist, there must be inflow to balance evaporation).\n\n**In summary,** what happens to the water between two colliding continents will largely reflect the geometry of the colliding margins. In scenarios where collisions happen more from the center outward, water can easily flow out and very little would be expected to be trapped. In scenarios where closed basins form (at least temporarily) because of the geometry, then there might be some trapping of water, and even in a scenario where the rates and geometry are such that very little ocean water is actually trapped, but a hydrologically isolated basin is formed, you can still end up with forming a body of water (i.e., a lake) that will persist for some time and then will often be destroyed through complete segmentation or simply dries out.","body_html":"<div class=\"md\"><p>The most important thing to start with is that plate tectonic processes are three dimensional. This might seem like a silly thing to emphasize, but we often think about many tectonic environments (like continent-continent collisions) in <a href=\"https://www.nps.gov/subjects/geology/images/continental-collision-diagram.jpg\">cross-section view</a> or in simple <a href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continental_collision#/media/File:Continental-continental_convergence_Fig21contcont.gif\">block diagrams</a> that have a third dimension but typically imply a very simple geometry for the colliding margins, i.e. two perfectly straight and parallel continental edges that collide. This perspective tends to color a lot of our thinking with the implied assumption that the when two continental margins collide, that collisional process <em>happens simultaneously along the margin</em>. This trips up even people who work on these processes for a living, e.g., see ongoing debates about the timing of any number of continent-continent collisions where the underlying assumption of many papers is that the timing of collision along the entire length of the system should be effectively the same. In reality though, most continental margins are complex, and as such, when they begin to collide, not all parts of the margins will begin colliding at once, e.g., a portion of one portion of a margin that is a <em>promontory</em> might collide first where as a portion that is an <em>embayment</em> might collide much later - implying that timing of collision can - and arguably should- vary along the length of the system (e.g., <a href=\"https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/geology/article-abstract/4/12/779/187792/Collision-of-irregular-continental-margins\">\u015eeng\u00f6r, 1976</a>). </p>\n\n<p>What does the above have to do with respect to the question? Well, the complexity geometry and exact topology of both colliding margins will play a pretty big role in whether you expect to form (temporary) isolated basins or not. To demonstrate, let's imagine two opposite scenarios. In both we have something akin to the India-Eurasia set up with one side of the continental margin (Eurasia) being much longer than the other (India), the latter of which we can call the "indenter". In both scenarios we'll also consider that the larger continent has relatively straight margin but that the margin of the indeter facing it will have complexity: </p>\n\n<ul>\n<li>In scenario 1, let's imagine the colliding margin of the indenter is effectively triangular shaped in map view with the peak of the triangle near the center and forming a large promontory (i.e., the width of the ocean basin is smallest in the center of the colliding margins and increases toward the edges) . This central area will collide first and broadly, because the rate of collision is proceeding at tectonic rates (i.e., mm to cm per year), the water in the intervening ocean basin will just flow into the (still connected to the open ocean) portion of the narrow subducting portion of the ocean basin. The collision proceeds progressively along its length, closing the ocean basin toward the open ocean and not really setting up a scenario for any portion of ocean basin (or water within it) to be trapped. Now, some amount of seawater will still likely be subducted because the subducted sediments within the ocean basin will typically have some amount of water within pore spaces, etc., but there really is never a truly trapped portion of the basin.</li>\n<li>In scenario 2, let's imagine instead that the colliding margin of the identer is again triangular shaped, but now with the point of the triangle reversed forming a large embayment. Now when the collision starts, it will be at the very edges of the indentor continent and will proceed inward. Here, a scenario is being set up where this portion of the ocean basin (and some portion of the water within it) may become "trapped" once the "gateways" at either edge of the indenter continent are fully closed. As collision proceeds, what exactly happens to the water depends a bit on the local details. Without connection to the open ocean, this is basically now a lake and so the water level in that lake becomes subject to the balance of water flowing in (from rivers, groundwater) and water leaving (primarily from evaporation). If evaporation is lower than influx, then some amount of water will be maintained and you could theoretically have some sort of (presumably relatively saline) lakes persist for a while, but that are getting progressively segmented as collision continues. If evaporation is greater than influx, the the water will evaporate and an evaporite deposit will form.</li>\n</ul>\n\n<p>Now, the above is of course extremely simplified, but we can find some kind of analogous examples if we move westward from the India-Eurasia collision into the other portions of the Alpine-Himalayan belt, specifically where Africa and Arabia are colliding with Eurasia. The Mediterranean is effectively a remnant of a former through going ocean (specifically a remnant of <a href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paratethys\">Paratethys</a> which in turn is a remnant of Neotethys, which in turn was a remnant of the <a href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tethys_Ocean\">Tethys</a> ocean) and has, in the past, been completely isolated from the global ocean during the <a href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Messinian_salinity_crisis\">Messinian salinity crisis</a> where it nearly completely dried out, leaving behind massive evaporite (i.e., salt) deposits. In this case, the impetus of that isolation wasn't as simple as scenario 2 (and it obviously wasn't permanent), but it was likely tectonic related, specifically through some subduction processes near the Gibraltar strait that uplifted the area enough to temporarily disconnect the Med from the global ocean (e.g., <a href=\"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ter.12442\">Capella et al., 2020</a>). </p>\n\n<p>Further east and into other former portions of Paratethys, both the Black and Caspian Seas are effectively interpreted as portions of "remnant ocean basins" (sensu <a href=\"https://www.researchgate.net/publication/313248388_Remnant_ocean_basin\">Ingersoll et al., 1995</a>), basically sections of oceanic lithosphere that did not subduct and now persist as "rigid inclusions" within a broader collision zone (in detail these were not formally part of the original ocean basin that closed, but rather represent back-arc basins that opened and then partially closed during prolonged collision, e.g., <a href=\"https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/0040195186901976\">Zonenshain & Le Pichon, 1986</a>). The Black Sea is currently connected to the open ocean via the Mediterranean, but the Caspian is obviously fully closed off hydrologically. Is any of the water in there a remnant of former ocean water? Maybe, but the Caspian (and Black, Aral, Dacian, etc. basins) have had such a complicated history of interconnection with each other and connection with the open ocean over the duration of the Africa-Eurasia and Arabian-Eurasian collision (e.g., <a href=\"https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0921818117300711\">Palcu et al., 2017</a>) that it becomes quite challenging to really think of it as just left over ocean water (and of course its continued existence requires constant influx of water from rivers that outpaces, or stays equal with, evaporation). </p>\n\n<p>Ultimately, hydrologically isolated basins in collisions, whether they form from segmentation of the original ocean basin or later "successor" basins that form, can often be sites of evaporite deposits like the Mediterranean example (and many of the other Paratethyan basins) and we can find examples of largely similar tectonic environments in former collisional systems, like the Paradox basin in the western US (e.g., <a href=\"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1046/j.1365-2117.2003.00194.x\">Barbeau, 2003</a>). This also highlights that while we think of collisional systems as primarily pushing topography up (i.e., building mountain ranges), because of <a href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithospheric_flexure\">lithospheric flexure</a>, building mountains tends to produce adjacent basins that can complicate the evolution of the former margins and help to, at least temporarily, "preserve" low areas that could host some amount of water within the collisional zone (but again, the extent to which any water occupying these regions is truly trapped ocean water depends on a lot of the details and for a body of water to persist, there must be inflow to balance evaporation).</p>\n\n<p><strong>In summary,</strong> what happens to the water between two colliding continents will largely reflect the geometry of the colliding margins. In scenarios where collisions happen more from the center outward, water can easily flow out and very little would be expected to be trapped. In scenarios where closed basins form (at least temporarily) because of the geometry, then there might be some trapping of water, and even in a scenario where the rates and geometry are such that very little ocean water is actually trapped, but a hydrologically isolated basin is formed, you can still end up with forming a body of water (i.e., a lake) that will persist for some time and then will often be destroyed through complete segmentation or simply dries out.</p>\n</div>","can_gild":false,"can_mod_post":false,"collapsed":false,"collapsed_because_crowd_control":null,"collapsed_reason":null,"collapsed_reason_code":null,"comment_type":null,"controversiality":0,"created":1746363793.0,"created_utc":1746363793.0,"distinguished":null,"downs":0,"edited":false,"gilded":0,"gildings":{},"id":"mqj2zt6","is_submitter":false,"likes":null,"link_id":"t3_1kedf2l","locked":false,"mod_note":null,"mod_reason_by":null,"mod_reason_title":null,"mod_reports":[],"name":"t1_mqj2zt6","no_follow":true,"num_reports":null,"parent_id":"t3_1kedf2l","permalink":"/r/askscience/comments/1kedf2l/where_does_the_water_between_two_convergent/mqj2zt6/","removal_reason":null,"replies":"","report_reasons":null,"saved":false,"score":1,"score_hidden":true,"send_replies":true,"stickied":false,"subreddit":"askscience","subreddit_id":"t5_2qm4e","subreddit_name_prefixed":"r/askscience","subreddit_type":"public","top_awarded_type":null,"total_awards_received":0,"treatment_tags":[],"unrepliable_reason":null,"ups":1,"user_reports":[]},{"all_awardings":[],"approved_at_utc":null,"approved_by":null,"archived":false,"associated_award":null,"author":"CrustalTrudger","author_flair_background_color":"","author_flair_css_class":"geo","author_flair_richtext":[],"author_flair_template_id":null,"author_flair_text":"Tectonics | Structural Geology | Geomorphology","author_flair_text_color":"dark","author_flair_type":"text","author_fullname":"t2_ee0f4","author_is_blocked":false,"author_patreon_flair":false,"author_premium":true,"awarders":[],"banned_at_utc":null,"banned_by":null,"body":">So I was thinking of land mass on earth and how new land, from the time of the last super-continents, has come into being via volcanic island arcs (so we now have more land than Pangea from what I gather).\n\nThere's a bit of a subtle distinction here in the sense of whether we're talking about changes in the surface area of exposed \"land\" irrespective of the composition of the crust that makes up that land vs. the volume of continental crust. The former would generally be strongly dependent on the latter as *most* exposed land is continental crust and thus the extent of land surface will reflect a mixture of volume of crust that is continental, but also importantly how that volume is distributed (i.e., thickness of the continental crust, etc.) along with eustatic sea level variations. In terms of changes since the breakup of Pangea and for the volume of continental crust and/or percentage of crust that is continental, there's a range of estimates (e.g., see reviews in [Korenaga, 2018](https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsta.2017.0408), [Hawkesworth et al., 2019](https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1674987118300501), [Cawood & Hawkesworth, 2019](https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1342937X18302569)), with mixtures of suggestions of increases in volume, static volume, or decreases in volume.\n\nIf we're interested instead in the surface area, then really we're talking about variations in the \"continental freeboard\", which is basically the relative elevation of the continents with respect to sea level, where a reduction in freeboard implies less surface area and an increase in freeboard implies more surface area. Again, there are a range of histories, e.g., [Whitehead & Clift, 2009](https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2008JB006176) suggest an increase in freeboard in the recent geologic past (and more broadly that freeboard may be more variable than has been implied before) whereas Cawood & Hawkesworth from above suggest effectively static freeboard for really the last ~3 billion years, but with tradeoffs in terms of volume and thickness of continental crust, specifically a decrease in volume and thickness of continental crust over the last ~750 million years (but constant freeboard, i.e., surface area).\n\n>However, am I right to think that the continental plates themselves are constantly being eroded? I know sea level rise and fall can obvious change the coast line, but do the continental plates themselves ever expand or is each continental plate very slowly being diminished in size?\n\nA clarification first in the sense of this in part reflecting a common misconception that there are exclusively \"continental plates\" and \"oceanic plates\". In reality, while there are some plates that are composed of exclusively (or mostly) either oceanic or continental lithosphere, there are also plenty of plates made up of both. Take something like the [North American plate](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_American_plate) which includes significant portions of both continental and oceanic lithosphere. Thus, we want to be a little careful with our terminology here and instead think about *continental portions of plates*.\n\nReturning to the question, yes, you are generally correct in the sense that there is somewhat constant erosion (both in the sense that you're probably thinking of in terms of surface processes weathering rock into sediment that is then transported somewhere, but also through \"tectonic erosion\") of continental portions of plates. The nuance is what happens to that eroded material. For sediment that is eroded from subaerially exposed continental crust and deposited in near shore areas like deltas or basins, this is still effectively part of the continental crust, it's simply a redistribution of mass (especially if we consider long-term where that sediment is lithified into rock). Eventually some of that sediment may be subducted back into the mantle, which would then represent a (at least temporary) loss of continental crust volume, but melting of that sediment and incorporation of components into volcanic arcs effectively returns that volume. What this is all hinting is that even though when we talk about \"crustal recycling\", usually the focus is oceanic crust (and there, there really is a very clear kind of \"conveyor belt\" type of recycling between production at mid-ocean ridges and destruction at subduction zones) there is effectively still a series of \"recycling\" processes for continental crust. As such, the continental crust volume that we discussed above reflects the relative balance of those processes (i.e., the removal vs the addition). If you want a little more detail on crustal recycling, I'd suggest this [FAQ entry](https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/wiki/planetary_sciences/crust_recycling/).\n\n**In summary,** while there is somewhat constant removal of continental crust by a few different processes, there are processes that effectively generate new continental crust (like magmatic activity in volcanic arcs), such that the volume at any given time reflects the balance between these destructive and constructive processes. Estimates of changes in crustal volume are pretty mixed for the last few hundred million years, with some suggesting increasing volumes, others decreasing volumes, and others still effectively static volumes. Continental crust volume does not directly equal continental surface area (or land area more broadly) because it depends on how the continental volume is distributed and controls on sea level, but continental crust volume obviously is a strong control on continental surface area.","body_html":"<div class=\"md\"><blockquote>\n<p>So I was thinking of land mass on earth and how new land, from the time of the last super-continents, has come into being via volcanic island arcs (so we now have more land than Pangea from what I gather).</p>\n</blockquote>\n\n<p>There's a bit of a subtle distinction here in the sense of whether we're talking about changes in the surface area of exposed "land" irrespective of the composition of the crust that makes up that land vs. the volume of continental crust. The former would generally be strongly dependent on the latter as <em>most</em> exposed land is continental crust and thus the extent of land surface will reflect a mixture of volume of crust that is continental, but also importantly how that volume is distributed (i.e., thickness of the continental crust, etc.) along with eustatic sea level variations. In terms of changes since the breakup of Pangea and for the volume of continental crust and/or percentage of crust that is continental, there's a range of estimates (e.g., see reviews in <a href=\"https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsta.2017.0408\">Korenaga, 2018</a>, <a href=\"https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1674987118300501\">Hawkesworth et al., 2019</a>, <a href=\"https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1342937X18302569\">Cawood & Hawkesworth, 2019</a>), with mixtures of suggestions of increases in volume, static volume, or decreases in volume.</p>\n\n<p>If we're interested instead in the surface area, then really we're talking about variations in the "continental freeboard", which is basically the relative elevation of the continents with respect to sea level, where a reduction in freeboard implies less surface area and an increase in freeboard implies more surface area. Again, there are a range of histories, e.g., <a href=\"https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2008JB006176\">Whitehead & Clift, 2009</a> suggest an increase in freeboard in the recent geologic past (and more broadly that freeboard may be more variable than has been implied before) whereas Cawood & Hawkesworth from above suggest effectively static freeboard for really the last ~3 billion years, but with tradeoffs in terms of volume and thickness of continental crust, specifically a decrease in volume and thickness of continental crust over the last ~750 million years (but constant freeboard, i.e., surface area).</p>\n\n<blockquote>\n<p>However, am I right to think that the continental plates themselves are constantly being eroded? I know sea level rise and fall can obvious change the coast line, but do the continental plates themselves ever expand or is each continental plate very slowly being diminished in size?</p>\n</blockquote>\n\n<p>A clarification first in the sense of this in part reflecting a common misconception that there are exclusively "continental plates" and "oceanic plates". In reality, while there are some plates that are composed of exclusively (or mostly) either oceanic or continental lithosphere, there are also plenty of plates made up of both. Take something like the <a href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_American_plate\">North American plate</a> which includes significant portions of both continental and oceanic lithosphere. Thus, we want to be a little careful with our terminology here and instead think about <em>continental portions of plates</em>.</p>\n\n<p>Returning to the question, yes, you are generally correct in the sense that there is somewhat constant erosion (both in the sense that you're probably thinking of in terms of surface processes weathering rock into sediment that is then transported somewhere, but also through "tectonic erosion") of continental portions of plates. The nuance is what happens to that eroded material. For sediment that is eroded from subaerially exposed continental crust and deposited in near shore areas like deltas or basins, this is still effectively part of the continental crust, it's simply a redistribution of mass (especially if we consider long-term where that sediment is lithified into rock). Eventually some of that sediment may be subducted back into the mantle, which would then represent a (at least temporary) loss of continental crust volume, but melting of that sediment and incorporation of components into volcanic arcs effectively returns that volume. What this is all hinting is that even though when we talk about "crustal recycling", usually the focus is oceanic crust (and there, there really is a very clear kind of "conveyor belt" type of recycling between production at mid-ocean ridges and destruction at subduction zones) there is effectively still a series of "recycling" processes for continental crust. As such, the continental crust volume that we discussed above reflects the relative balance of those processes (i.e., the removal vs the addition). If you want a little more detail on crustal recycling, I'd suggest this <a href=\"https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/wiki/planetary_sciences/crust_recycling/\">FAQ entry</a>.</p>\n\n<p><strong>In summary,</strong> while there is somewhat constant removal of continental crust by a few different processes, there are processes that effectively generate new continental crust (like magmatic activity in volcanic arcs), such that the volume at any given time reflects the balance between these destructive and constructive processes. Estimates of changes in crustal volume are pretty mixed for the last few hundred million years, with some suggesting increasing volumes, others decreasing volumes, and others still effectively static volumes. Continental crust volume does not directly equal continental surface area (or land area more broadly) because it depends on how the continental volume is distributed and controls on sea level, but continental crust volume obviously is a strong control on continental surface area.</p>\n</div>","can_gild":false,"can_mod_post":false,"collapsed":false,"collapsed_because_crowd_control":null,"collapsed_reason":null,"collapsed_reason_code":null,"comment_type":null,"controversiality":0,"created":1746273706.0,"created_utc":1746273706.0,"distinguished":null,"downs":0,"edited":false,"gilded":0,"gildings":{},"id":"mqcw7lf","is_submitter":false,"likes":null,"link_id":"t3_1kdnj8m","locked":false,"mod_note":null,"mod_reason_by":null,"mod_reason_title":null,"mod_reports":[],"name":"t1_mqcw7lf","no_follow":false,"num_reports":null,"parent_id":"t3_1kdnj8m","permalink":"/r/askscience/comments/1kdnj8m/do_the_shorelines_of_continental_plates_always/mqcw7lf/","removal_reason":null,"replies":"","report_reasons":null,"saved":false,"score":1,"score_hidden":true,"send_replies":true,"stickied":false,"subreddit":"askscience","subreddit_id":"t5_2qm4e","subreddit_name_prefixed":"r/askscience","subreddit_type":"public","top_awarded_type":null,"total_awards_received":0,"treatment_tags":[],"unrepliable_reason":null,"ups":1,"user_reports":[]},{"all_awardings":[],"approved_at_utc":null,"approved_by":null,"archived":false,"associated_award":null,"author":"StereoTypo","author_flair_background_color":null,"author_flair_css_class":null,"author_flair_richtext":[],"author_flair_template_id":null,"author_flair_text":null,"author_flair_text_color":null,"author_flair_type":"text","author_fullname":"t2_5ul3h","author_is_blocked":false,"author_patreon_flair":false,"author_premium":false,"awarders":[],"banned_at_utc":null,"banned_by":null,"body":"If our best guess is four arms, then the answer is \"four arms\".\n\nThere are many fields of science where direct observation is impossible and yet you don't have to say \"that we know of\" or \"I guess\" after each statement.\n\nFor example, what is phylogenetics but the \"best guess\" with a unbelievable amount of empirical data but no practical means of obtaining observational proof of the relationship between species. \"There's no way to tell for sure\" is the same kind of comment made by people who deny evolution.","body_html":"<div class=\"md\"><p>If our best guess is four arms, then the answer is "four arms".</p>\n\n<p>There are many fields of science where direct observation is impossible and yet you don't have to say "that we know of" or "I guess" after each statement.</p>\n\n<p>For example, what is phylogenetics but the "best guess" with a unbelievable amount of empirical data but no practical means of obtaining observational proof of the relationship between species. "There's no way to tell for sure" is the same kind of comment made by people who deny evolution.</p>\n</div>","can_gild":false,"can_mod_post":false,"collapsed":false,"collapsed_because_crowd_control":null,"collapsed_reason":null,"collapsed_reason_code":null,"comment_type":null,"controversiality":0,"created":1746231747.0,"created_utc":1746231747.0,"distinguished":null,"downs":0,"edited":false,"gilded":0,"gildings":{},"id":"mqajqkj","is_submitter":false,"likes":null,"link_id":"t3_1kd0m3b","locked":false,"mod_note":null,"mod_reason_by":null,"mod_reason_title":null,"mod_reports":[],"name":"t1_mqajqkj","no_follow":false,"num_reports":null,"parent_id":"t1_mq9noki","permalink":"/r/askscience/comments/1kd0m3b/how_did_we_those_fancy_pictures_of_our_own_galaxy/mqajqkj/","removal_reason":null,"replies":"","report_reasons":null,"saved":false,"score":1,"score_hidden":true,"send_replies":true,"stickied":false,"subreddit":"askscience","subreddit_id":"t5_2qm4e","subreddit_name_prefixed":"r/askscience","subreddit_type":"public","top_awarded_type":null,"total_awards_received":0,"treatment_tags":[],"unrepliable_reason":null,"ups":1,"user_reports":[]},{"all_awardings":[],"approved_at_utc":null,"approved_by":null,"archived":false,"associated_award":null,"author":"Froggmann5","author_flair_background_color":null,"author_flair_css_class":null,"author_flair_richtext":[],"author_flair_template_id":null,"author_flair_text":null,"author_flair_text_color":null,"author_flair_type":"text","author_fullname":"t2_cl5py","author_is_blocked":false,"author_patreon_flair":false,"author_premium":false,"awarders":[],"banned_at_utc":null,"banned_by":null,"body":"Nothing is useful until it is. Most of what's discovered by science isn't useful for decades, or even centuries before a use is found.\n\n> It'd be like teaching the principle of lift to a 19th century frontiersman.\n\nThat's a poor example. It's moreso providing a storehouse full of tools to a frontiersman. The average frontiersman may find no use for 90% of the tools, but others may be struck with inspiration and use these tools in novel and useful ways that spread to the other frontiersmen.","body_html":"<div class=\"md\"><p>Nothing is useful until it is. Most of what's discovered by science isn't useful for decades, or even centuries before a use is found.</p>\n\n<blockquote>\n<p>It'd be like teaching the principle of lift to a 19th century frontiersman.</p>\n</blockquote>\n\n<p>That's a poor example. It's moreso providing a storehouse full of tools to a frontiersman. The average frontiersman may find no use for 90% of the tools, but others may be struck with inspiration and use these tools in novel and useful ways that spread to the other frontiersmen.</p>\n</div>","can_gild":false,"can_mod_post":false,"collapsed":false,"collapsed_because_crowd_control":null,"collapsed_reason":null,"collapsed_reason_code":null,"comment_type":null,"controversiality":0,"created":1746227655.0,"created_utc":1746227655.0,"distinguished":null,"downs":0,"edited":false,"gilded":0,"gildings":{},"id":"mqa85si","is_submitter":false,"likes":null,"link_id":"t3_1kd0m3b","locked":false,"mod_note":null,"mod_reason_by":null,"mod_reason_title":null,"mod_reports":[],"name":"t1_mqa85si","no_follow":true,"num_reports":null,"parent_id":"t1_mq7crth","permalink":"/r/askscience/comments/1kd0m3b/how_did_we_those_fancy_pictures_of_our_own_galaxy/mqa85si/","removal_reason":null,"replies":"","report_reasons":null,"saved":false,"score":1,"score_hidden":true,"send_replies":true,"stickied":false,"subreddit":"askscience","subreddit_id":"t5_2qm4e","subreddit_name_prefixed":"r/askscience","subreddit_type":"public","top_awarded_type":null,"total_awards_received":0,"treatment_tags":[],"unrepliable_reason":null,"ups":1,"user_reports":[]},{"all_awardings":[],"approved_at_utc":null,"approved_by":null,"archived":false,"associated_award":null,"author":"TheAngledian","author_flair_background_color":null,"author_flair_css_class":null,"author_flair_richtext":[],"author_flair_template_id":null,"author_flair_text":null,"author_flair_text_color":null,"author_flair_type":"text","author_fullname":"t2_7ksbx","author_is_blocked":false,"author_patreon_flair":false,"author_premium":false,"awarders":[],"banned_at_utc":null,"banned_by":null,"body":"We have a pretty good idea of the structure of the Milky Way because of exceptional data from telescopes such as Gaia. \n\nFrom that, while we cannot say for certain how the Milky Way looks exactly, we can use other similar galaxies as representative images. One good example is [NGC 3949](https://science.nasa.gov/asset/hubble/spiral-galaxy-ngc-3949-a-galaxy-similar-to-the-milky-way/)","body_html":"<div class=\"md\"><p>We have a pretty good idea of the structure of the Milky Way because of exceptional data from telescopes such as Gaia. </p>\n\n<p>From that, while we cannot say for certain how the Milky Way looks exactly, we can use other similar galaxies as representative images. One good example is <a href=\"https://science.nasa.gov/asset/hubble/spiral-galaxy-ngc-3949-a-galaxy-similar-to-the-milky-way/\">NGC 3949</a></p>\n</div>","can_gild":false,"can_mod_post":false,"collapsed":false,"collapsed_because_crowd_control":null,"collapsed_reason":null,"collapsed_reason_code":null,"comment_type":null,"controversiality":0,"created":1746216892.0,"created_utc":1746216892.0,"distinguished":null,"downs":0,"edited":false,"gilded":0,"gildings":{},"id":"mq9am0a","is_submitter":false,"likes":null,"link_id":"t3_1kd0m3b","locked":false,"mod_note":null,"mod_reason_by":null,"mod_reason_title":null,"mod_reports":[],"name":"t1_mq9am0a","no_follow":true,"num_reports":null,"parent_id":"t3_1kd0m3b","permalink":"/r/askscience/comments/1kd0m3b/how_did_we_those_fancy_pictures_of_our_own_galaxy/mq9am0a/","removal_reason":null,"replies":"","report_reasons":null,"saved":false,"score":1,"score_hidden":true,"send_replies":true,"stickied":false,"subreddit":"askscience","subreddit_id":"t5_2qm4e","subreddit_name_prefixed":"r/askscience","subreddit_type":"public","top_awarded_type":null,"total_awards_received":0,"treatment_tags":[],"unrepliable_reason":null,"ups":1,"user_reports":[]},{"all_awardings":[],"approved_at_utc":null,"approved_by":null,"archived":false,"associated_award":null,"author":"Careful-Remote-7024","author_flair_background_color":null,"author_flair_css_class":null,"author_flair_richtext":[],"author_flair_template_id":null,"author_flair_text":null,"author_flair_text_color":null,"author_flair_type":"text","author_fullname":"t2_1dasd3pcga","author_is_blocked":false,"author_patreon_flair":false,"author_premium":false,"awarders":[],"banned_at_utc":null,"banned_by":null,"body":"P=NP is more about knowing if being able to verify something in polynomial time (NP), means we can find that solution in polynomial time (P). NP-Complete are NP and NP-Hard. Solving one NP-Complete (in polynomial time) solves all NP-Completes, solving one NP-Hard (in polynomial time) would solve all NP, but not necessary all NP-Hard.\n\nI was under the impression Quantum Computing could help to solve non-polynomial problems, but I see just like P=NP not being proven, it's not really known either. No example to prove if it's feasible, no demonstration to prove it can't.\n\nSo to come back to computational speed, Quantum Computing seems to be able to make some problems with no polynomial way of solving them into polynomial problems for example Deutsch\u2013Jozsa algorithm here : [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum\\_algorithm](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_algorithm) \n\nSo Quantum Computing could in fact solve in polynomial time NP problems for which we don't have polynomial way to solve. But where it seems I was wrong, is the fact that while it's not proven, it's highly unexpected that it could solve any NP-Complete or NP-Hard problem. I see some people are discussing if it could stlil speed them up a bit (while keeping them exponential [https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/quantum-science-and-technology/articles/10.3389/frqst.2023.1128576/full](https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/quantum-science-and-technology/articles/10.3389/frqst.2023.1128576/full) )","body_html":"<div class=\"md\"><p>P=NP is more about knowing if being able to verify something in polynomial time (NP), means we can find that solution in polynomial time (P). NP-Complete are NP and NP-Hard. Solving one NP-Complete (in polynomial time) solves all NP-Completes, solving one NP-Hard (in polynomial time) would solve all NP, but not necessary all NP-Hard.</p>\n\n<p>I was under the impression Quantum Computing could help to solve non-polynomial problems, but I see just like P=NP not being proven, it's not really known either. No example to prove if it's feasible, no demonstration to prove it can't.</p>\n\n<p>So to come back to computational speed, Quantum Computing seems to be able to make some problems with no polynomial way of solving them into polynomial problems for example Deutsch\u2013Jozsa algorithm here : <a href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_algorithm\">https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_algorithm</a> </p>\n\n<p>So Quantum Computing could in fact solve in polynomial time NP problems for which we don't have polynomial way to solve. But where it seems I was wrong, is the fact that while it's not proven, it's highly unexpected that it could solve any NP-Complete or NP-Hard problem. I see some people are discussing if it could stlil speed them up a bit (while keeping them exponential <a href=\"https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/quantum-science-and-technology/articles/10.3389/frqst.2023.1128576/full\">https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/quantum-science-and-technology/articles/10.3389/frqst.2023.1128576/full</a> )</p>\n</div>","can_gild":false,"can_mod_post":false,"collapsed":false,"collapsed_because_crowd_control":null,"collapsed_reason":null,"collapsed_reason_code":null,"comment_type":null,"controversiality":0,"created":1746208952.0,"created_utc":1746208952.0,"distinguished":null,"downs":0,"edited":false,"gilded":0,"gildings":{},"id":"mq8jr4i","is_submitter":false,"likes":null,"link_id":"t3_1kcdkgr","locked":false,"mod_note":null,"mod_reason_by":null,"mod_reason_title":null,"mod_reports":[],"name":"t1_mq8jr4i","no_follow":true,"num_reports":null,"parent_id":"t1_mq5xseg","permalink":"/r/askscience/comments/1kcdkgr/can_anyone_help_me_understand_something_about/mq8jr4i/","removal_reason":null,"replies":"","report_reasons":null,"saved":false,"score":1,"score_hidden":true,"send_replies":true,"stickied":false,"subreddit":"askscience","subreddit_id":"t5_2qm4e","subreddit_name_prefixed":"r/askscience","subreddit_type":"public","top_awarded_type":null,"total_awards_received":0,"treatment_tags":[],"unrepliable_reason":null,"ups":1,"user_reports":[]},{"all_awardings":[],"approved_at_utc":null,"approved_by":null,"archived":false,"associated_award":null,"author":"MarkHaversham","author_flair_background_color":null,"author_flair_css_class":null,"author_flair_richtext":[],"author_flair_template_id":null,"author_flair_text":null,"author_flair_text_color":null,"author_flair_type":"text","author_fullname":"t2_icuvj","author_is_blocked":false,"author_patreon_flair":false,"author_premium":false,"awarders":[],"banned_at_utc":null,"banned_by":null,"body":"It depends on what you mean by \"that picture\". [This diagram](https://science.nasa.gov/resource/the-milky-way-galaxy/) is an artist's conception of the Milky Way. But you might also see actual pictures of other spiral galaxies like the Andromeda Galaxy or Bode's Galaxy being used as stand-ins.","body_html":"<div class=\"md\"><p>It depends on what you mean by "that picture". <a href=\"https://science.nasa.gov/resource/the-milky-way-galaxy/\">This diagram</a> is an artist's conception of the Milky Way. But you might also see actual pictures of other spiral galaxies like the Andromeda Galaxy or Bode's Galaxy being used as stand-ins.</p>\n</div>","can_gild":false,"can_mod_post":false,"collapsed":false,"collapsed_because_crowd_control":null,"collapsed_reason":null,"collapsed_reason_code":null,"comment_type":null,"controversiality":0,"created":1746197462.0,"created_utc":1746197462.0,"distinguished":null,"downs":0,"edited":false,"gilded":0,"gildings":{},"id":"mq7f5mc","is_submitter":false,"likes":null,"link_id":"t3_1kd0m3b","locked":false,"mod_note":null,"mod_reason_by":null,"mod_reason_title":null,"mod_reports":[],"name":"t1_mq7f5mc","no_follow":true,"num_reports":null,"parent_id":"t3_1kd0m3b","permalink":"/r/askscience/comments/1kd0m3b/how_did_we_those_fancy_pictures_of_our_own_galaxy/mq7f5mc/","removal_reason":null,"replies":"","report_reasons":null,"saved":false,"score":1,"score_hidden":true,"send_replies":true,"stickied":false,"subreddit":"askscience","subreddit_id":"t5_2qm4e","subreddit_name_prefixed":"r/askscience","subreddit_type":"public","top_awarded_type":null,"total_awards_received":0,"treatment_tags":[],"unrepliable_reason":null,"ups":1,"user_reports":[]},{"all_awardings":[],"approved_at_utc":null,"approved_by":null,"archived":false,"associated_award":null,"author":"msnmck","author_flair_background_color":null,"author_flair_css_class":null,"author_flair_richtext":[],"author_flair_template_id":null,"author_flair_text":null,"author_flair_text_color":null,"author_flair_type":"text","author_fullname":"t2_mioqt","author_is_blocked":false,"author_patreon_flair":false,"author_premium":false,"awarders":[],"banned_at_utc":null,"banned_by":null,"body":"For students of science, hobbyists of astronomy and artists looking for inspiration, yes.\n\nI also agree that one day our current knowledge of astronomy could unlock presently unforeseen practical applications. I simply purport that at present this practical application of that knowledge doesn't exist for the vast majority of people. It'd be like teaching the principle of lift to a 19th century frontiersman.","body_html":"<div class=\"md\"><p>For students of science, hobbyists of astronomy and artists looking for inspiration, yes.</p>\n\n<p>I also agree that one day our current knowledge of astronomy could unlock presently unforeseen practical applications. I simply purport that at present this practical application of that knowledge doesn't exist for the vast majority of people. It'd be like teaching the principle of lift to a 19th century frontiersman.</p>\n</div>","can_gild":false,"can_mod_post":false,"collapsed":false,"collapsed_because_crowd_control":null,"collapsed_reason":null,"collapsed_reason_code":null,"comment_type":null,"controversiality":0,"created":1746196776.0,"created_utc":1746196776.0,"distinguished":null,"downs":0,"edited":false,"gilded":0,"gildings":{},"id":"mq7crth","is_submitter":false,"likes":null,"link_id":"t3_1kd0m3b","locked":false,"mod_note":null,"mod_reason_by":null,"mod_reason_title":null,"mod_reports":[],"name":"t1_mq7crth","no_follow":true,"num_reports":null,"parent_id":"t1_mq77qrd","permalink":"/r/askscience/comments/1kd0m3b/how_did_we_those_fancy_pictures_of_our_own_galaxy/mq7crth/","removal_reason":null,"replies":"","report_reasons":null,"saved":false,"score":1,"score_hidden":true,"send_replies":true,"stickied":false,"subreddit":"askscience","subreddit_id":"t5_2qm4e","subreddit_name_prefixed":"r/askscience","subreddit_type":"public","top_awarded_type":null,"total_awards_received":0,"treatment_tags":[],"unrepliable_reason":null,"ups":1,"user_reports":[]},{"all_awardings":[],"approved_at_utc":null,"approved_by":null,"archived":false,"associated_award":null,"author":"ProdigalTimmeh","author_flair_background_color":null,"author_flair_css_class":null,"author_flair_richtext":[],"author_flair_template_id":null,"author_flair_text":null,"author_flair_text_color":null,"author_flair_type":"text","author_fullname":"t2_edolv","author_is_blocked":false,"author_patreon_flair":false,"author_premium":false,"awarders":[],"banned_at_utc":null,"banned_by":null,"body":"Short, unsatisfying answer: we don't really know.\n\nLonger, slightly less unsatisfying answer: while we don't really have a definitive answer, and theories are still developing, you are correct that the microtear theory isn't really in favour anymore. It's been out of date for maybe a decade or so, though science contrary to it started coming out I think in the 90s (though I might be a bit off there).\n\n[There have been a few studies on blood flow restricted training](https://www.strongerbyscience.com/blood-flow-restriction-the-holy-grail-for-accessory-work/), which has been shown to minimize (or perhaps even outright nullify) muscle damage while keeping similar hypertrophic results. So, it seems that, at best, microtears are a correlative factor, not causative.\n\nThe true mechanisms for muscle growth are, unfortunately, still pretty unknown to us. The latest theories are that mechanical tension and metabolic stress on their own is enough to signal your muscles that they need to grow, but beyond that we don't know much.\n\nSome links for your reading pleasure:\n\nhttps://www.cka.ca/en/nlka-current-issues/is-post-exercise-muscle-soreness-a-valid-indicator-of-muscular-adaptations\n\nhttps://journals.physiology.org/doi/full/10.1152/physrev.00039.2022\n\nhttps://www.stronger.melbourne/blog/micro-tears-and-hypertrophy-separating-fact-from-fiction#:~:text=Scientific%20Perspective%3A,consistently%20correlate%20with%20muscle%20growth.","body_html":"<div class=\"md\"><p>Short, unsatisfying answer: we don't really know.</p>\n\n<p>Longer, slightly less unsatisfying answer: while we don't really have a definitive answer, and theories are still developing, you are correct that the microtear theory isn't really in favour anymore. It's been out of date for maybe a decade or so, though science contrary to it started coming out I think in the 90s (though I might be a bit off there).</p>\n\n<p><a href=\"https://www.strongerbyscience.com/blood-flow-restriction-the-holy-grail-for-accessory-work/\">There have been a few studies on blood flow restricted training</a>, which has been shown to minimize (or perhaps even outright nullify) muscle damage while keeping similar hypertrophic results. So, it seems that, at best, microtears are a correlative factor, not causative.</p>\n\n<p>The true mechanisms for muscle growth are, unfortunately, still pretty unknown to us. The latest theories are that mechanical tension and metabolic stress on their own is enough to signal your muscles that they need to grow, but beyond that we don't know much.</p>\n\n<p>Some links for your reading pleasure:</p>\n\n<p><a href=\"https://www.cka.ca/en/nlka-current-issues/is-post-exercise-muscle-soreness-a-valid-indicator-of-muscular-adaptations\">https://www.cka.ca/en/nlka-current-issues/is-post-exercise-muscle-soreness-a-valid-indicator-of-muscular-adaptations</a></p>\n\n<p><a href=\"https://journals.physiology.org/doi/full/10.1152/physrev.00039.2022\">https://journals.physiology.org/doi/full/10.1152/physrev.00039.2022</a></p>\n\n<p><a href=\"https://www.stronger.melbourne/blog/micro-tears-and-hypertrophy-separating-fact-from-fiction#:%7E:text=Scientific%20Perspective%3A,consistently%20correlate%20with%20muscle%20growth\">https://www.stronger.melbourne/blog/micro-tears-and-hypertrophy-separating-fact-from-fiction#:~:text=Scientific%20Perspective%3A,consistently%20correlate%20with%20muscle%20growth</a>.</p>\n</div>","can_gild":false,"can_mod_post":false,"collapsed":false,"collapsed_because_crowd_control":null,"collapsed_reason":null,"collapsed_reason_code":null,"comment_type":null,"controversiality":0,"created":1746167771.0,"created_utc":1746167771.0,"distinguished":null,"downs":0,"edited":false,"gilded":0,"gildings":{},"id":"mq5lo9x","is_submitter":false,"likes":null,"link_id":"t3_1kc08iv","locked":false,"mod_note":null,"mod_reason_by":null,"mod_reason_title":null,"mod_reports":[],"name":"t1_mq5lo9x","no_follow":true,"num_reports":null,"parent_id":"t3_1kc08iv","permalink":"/r/askscience/comments/1kc08iv/how_does_building_muscle_actually_work/mq5lo9x/","removal_reason":null,"replies":"","report_reasons":null,"saved":false,"score":1,"score_hidden":true,"send_replies":true,"stickied":false,"subreddit":"askscience","subreddit_id":"t5_2qm4e","subreddit_name_prefixed":"r/askscience","subreddit_type":"public","top_awarded_type":null,"total_awards_received":0,"treatment_tags":[],"unrepliable_reason":null,"ups":1,"user_reports":[]},{"all_awardings":[],"approved_at_utc":null,"approved_by":null,"archived":false,"associated_award":null,"author":"Daniel96dsl","author_flair_background_color":null,"author_flair_css_class":null,"author_flair_richtext":[],"author_flair_template_id":null,"author_flair_text":null,"author_flair_text_color":null,"author_flair_type":"text","author_fullname":"t2_1p09ypvo","author_is_blocked":false,"author_patreon_flair":false,"author_premium":false,"awarders":[],"banned_at_utc":null,"banned_by":null,"body":"The speedup you've heard about refers to problems like integer factorization. Shor's algorithm can theoretically factor large numbers a lot faster than any known classical method, which is a problem for RSA encryption.  Other high-impact areas would include simulating quantum systems for drug discovery and materials science.  The problem is, realizing these benefits has become more or less an engineering and materials problem. That is, we still have to build stable, large-scale quantum hardware, and quantum computers are only faster for specific types of problems, not universally.","body_html":"<div class=\"md\"><p>The speedup you've heard about refers to problems like integer factorization. Shor's algorithm can theoretically factor large numbers a lot faster than any known classical method, which is a problem for RSA encryption.  Other high-impact areas would include simulating quantum systems for drug discovery and materials science.  The problem is, realizing these benefits has become more or less an engineering and materials problem. That is, we still have to build stable, large-scale quantum hardware, and quantum computers are only faster for specific types of problems, not universally.</p>\n</div>","can_gild":false,"can_mod_post":false,"collapsed":false,"collapsed_because_crowd_control":null,"collapsed_reason":null,"collapsed_reason_code":null,"comment_type":null,"controversiality":0,"created":1746162692.0,"created_utc":1746162692.0,"distinguished":null,"downs":0,"edited":false,"gilded":0,"gildings":{},"id":"mq5cj9y","is_submitter":false,"likes":null,"link_id":"t3_1kcdkgr","locked":false,"mod_note":null,"mod_reason_by":null,"mod_reason_title":null,"mod_reports":[],"name":"t1_mq5cj9y","no_follow":true,"num_reports":null,"parent_id":"t3_1kcdkgr","permalink":"/r/askscience/comments/1kcdkgr/can_anyone_help_me_understand_something_about/mq5cj9y/","removal_reason":null,"replies":"","report_reasons":null,"saved":false,"score":1,"score_hidden":true,"send_replies":true,"stickied":false,"subreddit":"askscience","subreddit_id":"t5_2qm4e","subreddit_name_prefixed":"r/askscience","subreddit_type":"public","top_awarded_type":null,"total_awards_received":0,"treatment_tags":[],"unrepliable_reason":null,"ups":1,"user_reports":[]},{"all_awardings":[],"approved_at_utc":null,"approved_by":null,"archived":false,"associated_award":null,"author":"Careful-Remote-7024","author_flair_background_color":null,"author_flair_css_class":null,"author_flair_richtext":[],"author_flair_template_id":null,"author_flair_text":null,"author_flair_text_color":null,"author_flair_type":"text","author_fullname":"t2_1dasd3pcga","author_is_blocked":false,"author_patreon_flair":false,"author_premium":false,"awarders":[],"banned_at_utc":null,"banned_by":null,"body":"There's a whole class of problems that are said to be NP-Complete, which means \"**nondeterministic polynomial-time complete**\". \n\nThose problems are quite common, it's for example being able to solve a Sudoku, the travelling salesman problem...\n\nAnd they all have something in common : If you can solve ONE of them in polynominal-time (so it means : Not by brute forcing it with some \"Factorial complexity\"), you can translate the solution to that problem to ALL other problems. \n\nSo apart from Prime Factorizations (that is not NP-Complete as far as I know), which would also already be a big deal, having something that could suddenly break the limitation of traditional computing and be able to find answers with good probability to those problems ... Well... You just solved most of the most complex problems of computer science.\n\nBUT, even if Quantum Computing was there, it's not even it would really solve any of those. But it's also not proven. Soooo. More speculation than really anything substantial right now.\n\nFor background, I have a master degree in Computer Science from 10 years ago, so I might got some stuff wrong there, and I apologize for that, but typically the main point around those things in Computer Science is that we try to \"prove\" those things with real proofs like math proofs. But unfortunately those are not easy to do sooo I think it's just speculation at this point.","body_html":"<div class=\"md\"><p>There's a whole class of problems that are said to be NP-Complete, which means "<strong>nondeterministic polynomial-time complete</strong>". </p>\n\n<p>Those problems are quite common, it's for example being able to solve a Sudoku, the travelling salesman problem...</p>\n\n<p>And they all have something in common : If you can solve ONE of them in polynominal-time (so it means : Not by brute forcing it with some "Factorial complexity"), you can translate the solution to that problem to ALL other problems. </p>\n\n<p>So apart from Prime Factorizations (that is not NP-Complete as far as I know), which would also already be a big deal, having something that could suddenly break the limitation of traditional computing and be able to find answers with good probability to those problems ... Well... You just solved most of the most complex problems of computer science.</p>\n\n<p>BUT, even if Quantum Computing was there, it's not even it would really solve any of those. But it's also not proven. Soooo. More speculation than really anything substantial right now.</p>\n\n<p>For background, I have a master degree in Computer Science from 10 years ago, so I might got some stuff wrong there, and I apologize for that, but typically the main point around those things in Computer Science is that we try to "prove" those things with real proofs like math proofs. But unfortunately those are not easy to do sooo I think it's just speculation at this point.</p>\n</div>","can_gild":false,"can_mod_post":false,"collapsed":false,"collapsed_because_crowd_control":null,"collapsed_reason":null,"collapsed_reason_code":null,"comment_type":null,"controversiality":0,"created":1746132749.0,"created_utc":1746132749.0,"distinguished":null,"downs":0,"edited":false,"gilded":0,"gildings":{},"id":"mq32j0l","is_submitter":false,"likes":null,"link_id":"t3_1kcdkgr","locked":false,"mod_note":null,"mod_reason_by":null,"mod_reason_title":null,"mod_reports":[],"name":"t1_mq32j0l","no_follow":true,"num_reports":null,"parent_id":"t3_1kcdkgr","permalink":"/r/askscience/comments/1kcdkgr/can_anyone_help_me_understand_something_about/mq32j0l/","removal_reason":null,"replies":"","report_reasons":null,"saved":false,"score":1,"score_hidden":true,"send_replies":true,"stickied":false,"subreddit":"askscience","subreddit_id":"t5_2qm4e","subreddit_name_prefixed":"r/askscience","subreddit_type":"public","top_awarded_type":null,"total_awards_received":0,"treatment_tags":[],"unrepliable_reason":null,"ups":1,"user_reports":[]},{"all_awardings":[],"approved_at_utc":null,"approved_by":null,"archived":false,"associated_award":null,"author":"FizzingOnJayces","author_flair_background_color":null,"author_flair_css_class":null,"author_flair_richtext":[],"author_flair_template_id":null,"author_flair_text":null,"author_flair_text_color":null,"author_flair_type":"text","author_fullname":"t2_oya67","author_is_blocked":false,"author_patreon_flair":false,"author_premium":false,"awarders":[],"banned_at_utc":null,"banned_by":null,"body":"Not overly familiar behind the science of exactly WHY we 'lose memory' when drinking too much.\n\nHowever, this scenario happens when you're considered to be 'blackout'.  And you're not 'losing' the memory (which implies that you initially had the memory and then forgot it), you're just not making the memory in the first place.\n\nSimply, when blackout, your thoughts enter into your short-term memory. However, they never make it to your long-term memory.  \n\nSo you've effectively never formed the memory completely.  It never makes it into that long-term storage.\n\nThis is why people who are blackout can hold a brief conversation (~5 minutes), and then they'll begin to repeat themselves.  \n\nThere is no way to 'recover' these memories, because they never made it out of short-term and into long-term storage.","body_html":"<div class=\"md\"><p>Not overly familiar behind the science of exactly WHY we 'lose memory' when drinking too much.</p>\n\n<p>However, this scenario happens when you're considered to be 'blackout'.  And you're not 'losing' the memory (which implies that you initially had the memory and then forgot it), you're just not making the memory in the first place.</p>\n\n<p>Simply, when blackout, your thoughts enter into your short-term memory. However, they never make it to your long-term memory.  </p>\n\n<p>So you've effectively never formed the memory completely.  It never makes it into that long-term storage.</p>\n\n<p>This is why people who are blackout can hold a brief conversation (~5 minutes), and then they'll begin to repeat themselves.  </p>\n\n<p>There is no way to 'recover' these memories, because they never made it out of short-term and into long-term storage.</p>\n</div>","can_gild":false,"can_mod_post":false,"collapsed":false,"collapsed_because_crowd_control":null,"collapsed_reason":null,"collapsed_reason_code":null,"comment_type":null,"controversiality":0,"created":1746105021.0,"created_utc":1746105021.0,"distinguished":null,"downs":0,"edited":false,"gilded":0,"gildings":{},"id":"mq0h2rx","is_submitter":false,"likes":null,"link_id":"t3_1kbt931","locked":false,"mod_note":null,"mod_reason_by":null,"mod_reason_title":null,"mod_reports":[],"name":"t1_mq0h2rx","no_follow":false,"num_reports":null,"parent_id":"t3_1kbt931","permalink":"/r/askscience/comments/1kbt931/why_do_we_lose_memory_when_we_drink_too_much/mq0h2rx/","removal_reason":null,"replies":"","report_reasons":null,"saved":false,"score":1,"score_hidden":true,"send_replies":true,"stickied":false,"subreddit":"askscience","subreddit_id":"t5_2qm4e","subreddit_name_prefixed":"r/askscience","subreddit_type":"public","top_awarded_type":null,"total_awards_received":0,"treatment_tags":[],"unrepliable_reason":null,"ups":1,"user_reports":[]},{"all_awardings":[],"approved_at_utc":null,"approved_by":null,"archived":false,"associated_award":null,"author":"askscience-ModTeam","author_flair_background_color":null,"author_flair_css_class":null,"author_flair_richtext":[],"author_flair_template_id":null,"author_flair_text":null,"author_flair_text_color":null,"author_flair_type":"text","author_fullname":"t2_rpe3jilg","author_is_blocked":false,"author_patreon_flair":false,"author_premium":false,"awarders":[],"banned_at_utc":null,"banned_by":null,"body":"Thank you for your submission! Unfortunately, your submission has been removed for the following reason(s):\n\n* It is a question about science itself, which is best asked in another subreddit. Please see our [guidelines](http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/wiki/guidelines#wiki_questions_about_science_itself_are_best_answered_in_other_subreddits.).\n\n\n\nIf you disagree with this decision, please send a [message to the moderators.](https://www.reddit.com/message/compose?to=%2Fr%2Faskscience)","body_html":"<div class=\"md\"><p>Thank you for your submission! Unfortunately, your submission has been removed for the following reason(s):</p>\n\n<ul>\n<li>It is a question about science itself, which is best asked in another subreddit. Please see our <a href=\"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/wiki/guidelines#wiki_questions_about_science_itself_are_best_answered_in_other_subreddits.\">guidelines</a>.</li>\n</ul>\n\n<p>If you disagree with this decision, please send a <a href=\"https://www.reddit.com/message/compose?to=%2Fr%2Faskscience\">message to the moderators.</a></p>\n</div>","can_gild":false,"can_mod_post":false,"collapsed":false,"collapsed_because_crowd_control":null,"collapsed_reason":null,"collapsed_reason_code":null,"comment_type":null,"controversiality":0,"created":1745998454.0,"created_utc":1745998454.0,"distinguished":"moderator","downs":0,"edited":false,"gilded":0,"gildings":{},"id":"mpsxw95","is_submitter":false,"likes":null,"link_id":"t3_1kangwg","locked":false,"mod_note":null,"mod_reason_by":null,"mod_reason_title":null,"mod_reports":[],"name":"t1_mpsxw95","no_follow":true,"num_reports":null,"parent_id":"t3_1kangwg","permalink":"/r/askscience/comments/1kangwg/these_are_likely_too_big_questions_to_ask_but_ill/mpsxw95/","removal_reason":null,"replies":"","report_reasons":null,"saved":false,"score":1,"score_hidden":true,"send_replies":true,"stickied":true,"subreddit":"askscience","subreddit_id":"t5_2qm4e","subreddit_name_prefixed":"r/askscience","subreddit_type":"public","top_awarded_type":null,"total_awards_received":0,"treatment_tags":[],"unrepliable_reason":null,"ups":1,"user_reports":[]},{"all_awardings":[],"approved_at_utc":null,"approved_by":null,"archived":false,"associated_award":null,"author":"Darknessie","author_flair_background_color":null,"author_flair_css_class":null,"author_flair_richtext":[],"author_flair_template_id":null,"author_flair_text":null,"author_flair_text_color":null,"author_flair_type":"text","author_fullname":"t2_12z7mc","author_is_blocked":false,"author_patreon_flair":false,"author_premium":false,"awarders":[],"banned_at_utc":null,"banned_by":null,"body":"It was approved for a field trial only and about 5 years ago based on studies in 2003(?) and 2015, since then new research has come out that says it is unlikely to increase your cancer risk with recent studies in 2023 and 2024, causing both the FDA and the national cancer institute to retrace previous concerns, as well as cancer research uk.\n\nOf course there is plenty of pressure from rothamsted who have invested heavily in the trials as you expect but the reality is there have been no long term studies done on either the impact of eating burnt toast regularly vs not eating it or eating low acrylamide wheat burnt or not burnt.\n\nScience evolves as new information becomes available.","body_html":"<div class=\"md\"><p>It was approved for a field trial only and about 5 years ago based on studies in 2003(?) and 2015, since then new research has come out that says it is unlikely to increase your cancer risk with recent studies in 2023 and 2024, causing both the FDA and the national cancer institute to retrace previous concerns, as well as cancer research uk.</p>\n\n<p>Of course there is plenty of pressure from rothamsted who have invested heavily in the trials as you expect but the reality is there have been no long term studies done on either the impact of eating burnt toast regularly vs not eating it or eating low acrylamide wheat burnt or not burnt.</p>\n\n<p>Science evolves as new information becomes available.</p>\n</div>","can_gild":false,"can_mod_post":false,"collapsed":false,"collapsed_because_crowd_control":null,"collapsed_reason":null,"collapsed_reason_code":null,"comment_type":null,"controversiality":0,"created":1745825841.0,"created_utc":1745825841.0,"distinguished":null,"downs":0,"edited":false,"gilded":0,"gildings":{},"id":"mpg4zq7","is_submitter":false,"likes":null,"link_id":"t3_1k8wo9b","locked":false,"mod_note":null,"mod_reason_by":null,"mod_reason_title":null,"mod_reports":[],"name":"t1_mpg4zq7","no_follow":true,"num_reports":null,"parent_id":"t1_mpftgok","permalink":"/r/askscience/comments/1k8wo9b/does_burnt_bread_have_fewer_calories/mpg4zq7/","removal_reason":null,"replies":"","report_reasons":null,"saved":false,"score":1,"score_hidden":true,"send_replies":true,"stickied":false,"subreddit":"askscience","subreddit_id":"t5_2qm4e","subreddit_name_prefixed":"r/askscience","subreddit_type":"public","top_awarded_type":null,"total_awards_received":0,"treatment_tags":[],"unrepliable_reason":null,"ups":1,"user_reports":[]},{"all_awardings":[],"approved_at_utc":null,"approved_by":null,"archived":false,"associated_award":null,"author":"mfb-","author_flair_background_color":"","author_flair_css_class":"physics","author_flair_richtext":[],"author_flair_template_id":null,"author_flair_text":"Particle Physics | High-Energy Physics","author_flair_text_color":"dark","author_flair_type":"text","author_fullname":"t2_q81tq","author_is_blocked":false,"author_patreon_flair":false,"author_premium":false,"awarders":[],"banned_at_utc":null,"banned_by":null,"body":"Science is done step by step.","body_html":"<div class=\"md\"><p>Science is done step by step.</p>\n</div>","can_gild":false,"can_mod_post":false,"collapsed":false,"collapsed_because_crowd_control":null,"collapsed_reason":null,"collapsed_reason_code":null,"comment_type":null,"controversiality":0,"created":1745669672.0,"created_utc":1745669672.0,"distinguished":null,"downs":0,"edited":false,"gilded":0,"gildings":{},"id":"mp4ugn6","is_submitter":false,"likes":null,"link_id":"t3_1k7u3mh","locked":false,"mod_note":null,"mod_reason_by":null,"mod_reason_title":null,"mod_reports":[],"name":"t1_mp4ugn6","no_follow":true,"num_reports":null,"parent_id":"t1_mp4tfbd","permalink":"/r/askscience/comments/1k7u3mh/how_high_can_insects_count/mp4ugn6/","removal_reason":null,"replies":"","report_reasons":null,"saved":false,"score":1,"score_hidden":true,"send_replies":true,"stickied":false,"subreddit":"askscience","subreddit_id":"t5_2qm4e","subreddit_name_prefixed":"r/askscience","subreddit_type":"public","top_awarded_type":null,"total_awards_received":0,"treatment_tags":[],"unrepliable_reason":null,"ups":1,"user_reports":[]},{"all_awardings":[],"approved_at_utc":null,"approved_by":null,"archived":false,"associated_award":null,"author":"CrustalTrudger","author_flair_background_color":"","author_flair_css_class":"geo","author_flair_richtext":[],"author_flair_template_id":null,"author_flair_text":"Tectonics | Structural Geology | Geomorphology","author_flair_text_color":"dark","author_flair_type":"text","author_fullname":"t2_ee0f4","author_is_blocked":false,"author_patreon_flair":false,"author_premium":true,"awarders":[],"banned_at_utc":null,"banned_by":null,"body":"> Could the super deep bore hole produce geothermal power? 25 years of drilling straight down\n\nAssuming we're talking about [Kola](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kola_Superdeep_Borehole) or something similar, while activities there stretched across a few decades, it's not as though (1) drilling was active that entire time or (2) it took that long for a single hole to reach the total depth. I.e., it's not as though it took 25 years of consistent drilling of one particular borehole to reach the 12 km+ depth of Kola.\n\n> How hot is it down there?\n\nIf we look at results from the deepest hole at Kola, i.e., SG-3 ([Popov et al., 1999](https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0040195199000657)) the temperature at the base of the hole (measured ~20 days after drilling had completed) was ~190 C (e.g., Figure 5 in Popov).\n\n> Could we convert the hole to a geothermal power plant by placing a down water loop down the length of the hole? \n\n190 C at a depth of 12 km is pretty cold, all things considered. If we look at variation of critical parameters for the productivity of a geothermal power plant and the conditions in Kola, geothermal gradients (i.e., rate of increase of temperature as a function of depth) top out at ~25 C / km but are much lower for much of the borehole depth (Figure 4 of Popov) and [heat flux](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat_flux) (which in the case of Popov is referred to as heat flow density) hovered around 60 mW/m2 for much of the borehole. If we compare this to global databases of geothermal gradients and heat flux, like those in [Kolawole & Evenick, 2023](https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1674987123001524), we can see that these geothermal gradients are basically at the low end of what you'd expect in continental crust. In contrast, areas of thinner continental crust, would have average geothermal gradients of 50-100 C/km. \n\nIn terms of geothermal power generation (and it being worth the effort to drill holes for it), generally higher values of geothermal gradients are better because (1) hotter rocks are going to be more efficient at heating up the fluid you're circulating and (2) drilling is expensive so if you can drill in a location that has a high geothermal gradient, you can drill a shallower well to get to a suitable temperature. So, if you drilled a hole in a place with a 100 C/km geothermal gradient, you'd only have to drill ~1.9 km deep to get to the same temperature at the base of Kola, i.e., Kola would make a pretty bad geothermal power well.","body_html":"<div class=\"md\"><blockquote>\n<p>Could the super deep bore hole produce geothermal power? 25 years of drilling straight down</p>\n</blockquote>\n\n<p>Assuming we're talking about <a href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kola_Superdeep_Borehole\">Kola</a> or something similar, while activities there stretched across a few decades, it's not as though (1) drilling was active that entire time or (2) it took that long for a single hole to reach the total depth. I.e., it's not as though it took 25 years of consistent drilling of one particular borehole to reach the 12 km+ depth of Kola.</p>\n\n<blockquote>\n<p>How hot is it down there?</p>\n</blockquote>\n\n<p>If we look at results from the deepest hole at Kola, i.e., SG-3 (<a href=\"https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0040195199000657\">Popov et al., 1999</a>) the temperature at the base of the hole (measured ~20 days after drilling had completed) was ~190 C (e.g., Figure 5 in Popov).</p>\n\n<blockquote>\n<p>Could we convert the hole to a geothermal power plant by placing a down water loop down the length of the hole? </p>\n</blockquote>\n\n<p>190 C at a depth of 12 km is pretty cold, all things considered. If we look at variation of critical parameters for the productivity of a geothermal power plant and the conditions in Kola, geothermal gradients (i.e., rate of increase of temperature as a function of depth) top out at ~25 C / km but are much lower for much of the borehole depth (Figure 4 of Popov) and <a href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat_flux\">heat flux</a> (which in the case of Popov is referred to as heat flow density) hovered around 60 mW/m2 for much of the borehole. If we compare this to global databases of geothermal gradients and heat flux, like those in <a href=\"https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1674987123001524\">Kolawole & Evenick, 2023</a>, we can see that these geothermal gradients are basically at the low end of what you'd expect in continental crust. In contrast, areas of thinner continental crust, would have average geothermal gradients of 50-100 C/km. </p>\n\n<p>In terms of geothermal power generation (and it being worth the effort to drill holes for it), generally higher values of geothermal gradients are better because (1) hotter rocks are going to be more efficient at heating up the fluid you're circulating and (2) drilling is expensive so if you can drill in a location that has a high geothermal gradient, you can drill a shallower well to get to a suitable temperature. So, if you drilled a hole in a place with a 100 C/km geothermal gradient, you'd only have to drill ~1.9 km deep to get to the same temperature at the base of Kola, i.e., Kola would make a pretty bad geothermal power well.</p>\n</div>","can_gild":false,"can_mod_post":false,"collapsed":false,"collapsed_because_crowd_control":null,"collapsed_reason":null,"collapsed_reason_code":null,"comment_type":null,"controversiality":0,"created":1745584805.0,"created_utc":1745584805.0,"distinguished":null,"downs":0,"edited":false,"gilded":0,"gildings":{},"id":"moyl1t1","is_submitter":false,"likes":null,"link_id":"t3_1k74i4i","locked":false,"mod_note":null,"mod_reason_by":null,"mod_reason_title":null,"mod_reports":[],"name":"t1_moyl1t1","no_follow":false,"num_reports":null,"parent_id":"t3_1k74i4i","permalink":"/r/askscience/comments/1k74i4i/could_the_super_deep_bore_hole_produce_geothermal/moyl1t1/","removal_reason":null,"replies":"","report_reasons":null,"saved":false,"score":74,"score_hidden":false,"send_replies":true,"stickied":false,"subreddit":"askscience","subreddit_id":"t5_2qm4e","subreddit_name_prefixed":"r/askscience","subreddit_type":"public","top_awarded_type":null,"total_awards_received":0,"treatment_tags":[],"unrepliable_reason":null,"ups":74,"user_reports":[]},{"all_awardings":[],"approved_at_utc":null,"approved_by":null,"archived":false,"associated_award":null,"author":"Mr_Kiwi","author_flair_background_color":null,"author_flair_css_class":null,"author_flair_richtext":[],"author_flair_template_id":null,"author_flair_text":null,"author_flair_text_color":null,"author_flair_type":"text","author_fullname":"t2_5xswa","author_is_blocked":false,"author_patreon_flair":false,"author_premium":false,"awarders":[],"banned_at_utc":null,"banned_by":null,"body":"Like others have said, no, but if you want more details Brittanica has [an article](https://www.britannica.com/science/Carboniferous-Period) that concisely describes the geology, climate, life, and events that characterize the Carboniferous.\n\n\nNotably, amniotes first evolved during the Carboniferous, so there while there were various climates terrestrial animal life wasn't quite ready to inhabit them.","body_html":"<div class=\"md\"><p>Like others have said, no, but if you want more details Brittanica has <a href=\"https://www.britannica.com/science/Carboniferous-Period\">an article</a> that concisely describes the geology, climate, life, and events that characterize the Carboniferous.</p>\n\n<p>Notably, amniotes first evolved during the Carboniferous, so there while there were various climates terrestrial animal life wasn't quite ready to inhabit them.</p>\n</div>","can_gild":false,"can_mod_post":false,"collapsed":false,"collapsed_because_crowd_control":null,"collapsed_reason":null,"collapsed_reason_code":null,"comment_type":null,"controversiality":0,"created":1745518638.0,"created_utc":1745518638.0,"distinguished":null,"downs":0,"edited":false,"gilded":0,"gildings":{},"id":"motyhu7","is_submitter":false,"likes":null,"link_id":"t3_1k5wpbv","locked":false,"mod_note":null,"mod_reason_by":null,"mod_reason_title":null,"mod_reports":[],"name":"t1_motyhu7","no_follow":false,"num_reports":null,"parent_id":"t3_1k5wpbv","permalink":"/r/askscience/comments/1k5wpbv/was_earth_during_the_carboniferous_a/motyhu7/","removal_reason":null,"replies":"","report_reasons":null,"saved":false,"score":3,"score_hidden":false,"send_replies":true,"stickied":false,"subreddit":"askscience","subreddit_id":"t5_2qm4e","subreddit_name_prefixed":"r/askscience","subreddit_type":"public","top_awarded_type":null,"total_awards_received":0,"treatment_tags":[],"unrepliable_reason":null,"ups":3,"user_reports":[]},{"all_awardings":[],"approved_at_utc":null,"approved_by":null,"archived":false,"associated_award":null,"author":"sergeantbiggles","author_flair_background_color":null,"author_flair_css_class":null,"author_flair_richtext":[],"author_flair_template_id":null,"author_flair_text":null,"author_flair_text_color":null,"author_flair_type":"text","author_fullname":"t2_u1l4k","author_is_blocked":false,"author_patreon_flair":false,"author_premium":false,"awarders":[],"banned_at_utc":null,"banned_by":null,"body":"This one is from a science fiction story I read as a kid, so here it goes.\n\nGiven that the universe is expanding, if you were a time traveler who poofed back in time, would you be physically huge relative to your surroundings, since the universe (and possibly literally everything in it) was potentially smaller then (including atoms etc)? Also, if you poofed into the future, would you potentially be tiny, since the universe had been expanding? I guess in both of these scenarios, the time traveler's size would stay constant and relative to his origin point in time.\n\nI know this is silly, but thought it would be interesting to get some people's thoughts on it :)","body_html":"<div class=\"md\"><p>This one is from a science fiction story I read as a kid, so here it goes.</p>\n\n<p>Given that the universe is expanding, if you were a time traveler who poofed back in time, would you be physically huge relative to your surroundings, since the universe (and possibly literally everything in it) was potentially smaller then (including atoms etc)? Also, if you poofed into the future, would you potentially be tiny, since the universe had been expanding? I guess in both of these scenarios, the time traveler's size would stay constant and relative to his origin point in time.</p>\n\n<p>I know this is silly, but thought it would be interesting to get some people's thoughts on it :)</p>\n</div>","can_gild":false,"can_mod_post":false,"collapsed":false,"collapsed_because_crowd_control":null,"collapsed_reason":null,"collapsed_reason_code":null,"comment_type":null,"controversiality":0,"created":1745453564.0,"created_utc":1745453564.0,"distinguished":null,"downs":0,"edited":false,"gilded":0,"gildings":{},"id":"mopcczf","is_submitter":false,"likes":null,"link_id":"t3_1k5zwi2","locked":false,"mod_note":null,"mod_reason_by":null,"mod_reason_title":null,"mod_reports":[],"name":"t1_mopcczf","no_follow":true,"num_reports":null,"parent_id":"t3_1k5zwi2","permalink":"/r/askscience/comments/1k5zwi2/ask_anything_wednesday_physics_astronomy_earth/mopcczf/","removal_reason":null,"replies":"","report_reasons":null,"saved":false,"score":1,"score_hidden":false,"send_replies":true,"stickied":false,"subreddit":"askscience","subreddit_id":"t5_2qm4e","subreddit_name_prefixed":"r/askscience","subreddit_type":"public","top_awarded_type":null,"total_awards_received":0,"treatment_tags":[],"unrepliable_reason":null,"ups":1,"user_reports":[]},{"all_awardings":[],"approved_at_utc":null,"approved_by":null,"archived":false,"associated_award":null,"author":"mazzicc","author_flair_background_color":null,"author_flair_css_class":null,"author_flair_richtext":[],"author_flair_template_id":null,"author_flair_text":null,"author_flair_text_color":null,"author_flair_type":"text","author_fullname":"t2_e3bfl","author_is_blocked":false,"author_patreon_flair":false,"author_premium":false,"awarders":[],"banned_at_utc":null,"banned_by":null,"body":"The comments about \u201cwhat is life\u201d are very informative and relevant. It\u2019s weird to think about life as something that isn\u2019t actually defined, but a *lot* of science actually gets really weird when you get into the advanced levels. \n\nIt also seems to me that like most science, it\u2019s one of those things where we build up more and more evidence until the odds of it *not* being life are small enough to assume it *is* life, until proven otherwise. There may always be a small chance of error or counter-examples providing proof against though. \n\nIt might take a lot to provide sufficient evidence of either direction though, so unfortunately for OP it may be something that isn\u2019t conclusive for a very long time.","body_html":"<div class=\"md\"><p>The comments about \u201cwhat is life\u201d are very informative and relevant. It\u2019s weird to think about life as something that isn\u2019t actually defined, but a <em>lot</em> of science actually gets really weird when you get into the advanced levels. </p>\n\n<p>It also seems to me that like most science, it\u2019s one of those things where we build up more and more evidence until the odds of it <em>not</em> being life are small enough to assume it <em>is</em> life, until proven otherwise. There may always be a small chance of error or counter-examples providing proof against though. </p>\n\n<p>It might take a lot to provide sufficient evidence of either direction though, so unfortunately for OP it may be something that isn\u2019t conclusive for a very long time.</p>\n</div>","can_gild":false,"can_mod_post":false,"collapsed":false,"collapsed_because_crowd_control":null,"collapsed_reason":null,"collapsed_reason_code":null,"comment_type":null,"controversiality":0,"created":1745383107.0,"created_utc":1745383107.0,"distinguished":null,"downs":0,"edited":false,"gilded":0,"gildings":{},"id":"mok39ea","is_submitter":false,"likes":null,"link_id":"t3_1k4lf6t","locked":false,"mod_note":null,"mod_reason_by":null,"mod_reason_title":null,"mod_reports":[],"name":"t1_mok39ea","no_follow":true,"num_reports":null,"parent_id":"t1_mobr9q0","permalink":"/r/askscience/comments/1k4lf6t/what_finding_would_it_take_for_scientists_to/mok39ea/","removal_reason":null,"replies":"","report_reasons":null,"saved":false,"score":1,"score_hidden":true,"send_replies":true,"stickied":false,"subreddit":"askscience","subreddit_id":"t5_2qm4e","subreddit_name_prefixed":"r/askscience","subreddit_type":"public","top_awarded_type":null,"total_awards_received":0,"treatment_tags":[],"unrepliable_reason":null,"ups":1,"user_reports":[]},{"all_awardings":[],"approved_at_utc":null,"approved_by":null,"archived":false,"associated_award":null,"author":"TootBreaker","author_flair_background_color":null,"author_flair_css_class":null,"author_flair_richtext":[],"author_flair_template_id":null,"author_flair_text":null,"author_flair_text_color":null,"author_flair_type":"text","author_fullname":"t2_7yyg1c1g","author_is_blocked":false,"author_patreon_flair":false,"author_premium":false,"awarders":[],"banned_at_utc":null,"banned_by":null,"body":"Slowing the cargo ships will help more, with a much less intensive investment cost. But this requires carriers to plan & manage ships differently. More info: [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slow\\_steaming](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slow_steaming)\n\nBut there have been a few nuclear-powered civilian merchant ships built. In 1953, president Eisenhower ordered the construction of the NS Savannah as a demonstration of peaceful uses for nuclear power, but the Savannah was not built to a competitive scale and was an economic failure. In 1968 the German Otto Hahn carried both passengers and ore, in 1974 the Japanese Mutsu, intended to be used for cargo, but now serves as the RV Mirai as a science research platform, in 1986 the Russian icebreaker Sevmorput was launched and is still in service","body_html":"<div class=\"md\"><p>Slowing the cargo ships will help more, with a much less intensive investment cost. But this requires carriers to plan & manage ships differently. More info: <a href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slow_steaming\">https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slow_steaming</a></p>\n\n<p>But there have been a few nuclear-powered civilian merchant ships built. In 1953, president Eisenhower ordered the construction of the NS Savannah as a demonstration of peaceful uses for nuclear power, but the Savannah was not built to a competitive scale and was an economic failure. In 1968 the German Otto Hahn carried both passengers and ore, in 1974 the Japanese Mutsu, intended to be used for cargo, but now serves as the RV Mirai as a science research platform, in 1986 the Russian icebreaker Sevmorput was launched and is still in service</p>\n</div>","can_gild":false,"can_mod_post":false,"collapsed":false,"collapsed_because_crowd_control":null,"collapsed_reason":null,"collapsed_reason_code":null,"comment_type":null,"controversiality":0,"created":1745370804.0,"created_utc":1745370804.0,"distinguished":null,"downs":0,"edited":false,"gilded":0,"gildings":{},"id":"moj7hp6","is_submitter":false,"likes":null,"link_id":"t3_1k3ulh6","locked":false,"mod_note":null,"mod_reason_by":null,"mod_reason_title":null,"mod_reports":[],"name":"t1_moj7hp6","no_follow":true,"num_reports":null,"parent_id":"t3_1k3ulh6","permalink":"/r/askscience/comments/1k3ulh6/why_dont_cargo_ships_use_diesel_electric_like/moj7hp6/","removal_reason":null,"replies":"","report_reasons":null,"saved":false,"score":1,"score_hidden":true,"send_replies":true,"stickied":false,"subreddit":"askscience","subreddit_id":"t5_2qm4e","subreddit_name_prefixed":"r/askscience","subreddit_type":"public","top_awarded_type":null,"total_awards_received":0,"treatment_tags":[],"unrepliable_reason":null,"ups":1,"user_reports":[]},{"all_awardings":[],"approved_at_utc":null,"approved_by":null,"archived":false,"associated_award":null,"author":"Digital_D3fault","author_flair_background_color":null,"author_flair_css_class":null,"author_flair_richtext":[],"author_flair_template_id":null,"author_flair_text":null,"author_flair_text_color":null,"author_flair_type":"text","author_fullname":"t2_znmwy","author_is_blocked":false,"author_patreon_flair":false,"author_premium":false,"awarders":[],"banned_at_utc":null,"banned_by":null,"body":"That example would be more comparable if instead you said \u201cRacoons have only ever been found in a dense urban environment and are distinctly missing and absent from all other environments. Therefore from our current understanding urban environments are required to support raccoon life.\u201d \n\nWe have thousands of planets that don\u2019t have water in its liquid form and don\u2019t have life and one planet that does have water and does have life (there is more evidence then this but that revolves around chemical reactions and the chemical properties of water). All current evidence suggests that water is required to support life. Of course this could be false, and science readily admits this and actively attempts to find out if there are other means to support life but so far everything points to water being required. If we ever get sufficient enough evidence to suggest otherwise then we\u2019ll state that but until then all evidence suggests that water is a requirement **as far as we understand it**. To state otherwise would be to deny all current evidence because of the premise that there **may be** other evidence that says otherwise which could apply to everything and anything making it not a very productive conversation.","body_html":"<div class=\"md\"><p>That example would be more comparable if instead you said \u201cRacoons have only ever been found in a dense urban environment and are distinctly missing and absent from all other environments. Therefore from our current understanding urban environments are required to support raccoon life.\u201d </p>\n\n<p>We have thousands of planets that don\u2019t have water in its liquid form and don\u2019t have life and one planet that does have water and does have life (there is more evidence then this but that revolves around chemical reactions and the chemical properties of water). All current evidence suggests that water is required to support life. Of course this could be false, and science readily admits this and actively attempts to find out if there are other means to support life but so far everything points to water being required. If we ever get sufficient enough evidence to suggest otherwise then we\u2019ll state that but until then all evidence suggests that water is a requirement <strong>as far as we understand it</strong>. To state otherwise would be to deny all current evidence because of the premise that there <strong>may be</strong> other evidence that says otherwise which could apply to everything and anything making it not a very productive conversation.</p>\n</div>","can_gild":false,"can_mod_post":false,"collapsed":false,"collapsed_because_crowd_control":null,"collapsed_reason":null,"collapsed_reason_code":null,"comment_type":null,"controversiality":0,"created":1745368684.0,"created_utc":1745368684.0,"distinguished":null,"downs":0,"edited":false,"gilded":0,"gildings":{},"id":"moj1g7a","is_submitter":false,"likes":null,"link_id":"t3_1k4t44c","locked":false,"mod_note":null,"mod_reason_by":null,"mod_reason_title":null,"mod_reports":[],"name":"t1_moj1g7a","no_follow":true,"num_reports":null,"parent_id":"t1_mohhh8j","permalink":"/r/askscience/comments/1k4t44c/do_gas_planets_still_have_a_rocky_core/moj1g7a/","removal_reason":null,"replies":"","report_reasons":null,"saved":false,"score":1,"score_hidden":true,"send_replies":true,"stickied":false,"subreddit":"askscience","subreddit_id":"t5_2qm4e","subreddit_name_prefixed":"r/askscience","subreddit_type":"public","top_awarded_type":null,"total_awards_received":0,"treatment_tags":[],"unrepliable_reason":null,"ups":1,"user_reports":[]},{"all_awardings":[],"approved_at_utc":null,"approved_by":null,"archived":false,"associated_award":null,"author":"djublonskopf","author_flair_background_color":null,"author_flair_css_class":null,"author_flair_richtext":[],"author_flair_template_id":null,"author_flair_text":null,"author_flair_text_color":null,"author_flair_type":"text","author_fullname":"t2_fwj3x","author_is_blocked":false,"author_patreon_flair":false,"author_premium":false,"awarders":[],"banned_at_utc":null,"banned_by":null,"body":"Unfortunately, like so many things, [the answer is \"it depends.\"](https://www.researchgate.net/publication/248420923_Erratum_to_Diagnosis_of_abiotic_and_biotic_stress_factors_using_the_visible_symptoms_in_foliage_Environ_Pollut_137_2005_455-465)\n\n(And, to help you in your future searches, the term you're looking for is \"leaf senescence\".)\n\nLeaf senescence, the programmed dismantling and death of leaves, [is controlled by a lot of factors](https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0070215305710036)...age, environmental stress, damage, sugar consumption, chemical signals from elsewhere in the plant, etc. And consequently, the pattern of color change changes based on what's triggering the leaf senescence.\n\nIf the leaves are senescing prematurely because of airborne stress (drought, for example) then leaves getting the most light will likely be the first to change. If the stress is coming from bad soil, the leaves will most likely all change at the same time. If the stress is coming from infection, the leaves may change in patchy or irregular patterns.\n\nBut if we're looking at the programmed leaf senescence of plants that shed their leaves every autumn, it *still* depends...on the species. In an oak, the whole tree turns color at the same time. In a mature beech reaching the top of the forest canopy, the bits exposed to the sky will change before anything else...then generally the leaves turn top-to-bottom. The leaves of the mountain ash, however, turn bottom-to-top. [You'll find nice pictures of all these examples in this paper on visible symptoms of stress factors in foliage.](https://www.researchgate.net/publication/248420923_Erratum_to_Diagnosis_of_abiotic_and_biotic_stress_factors_using_the_visible_symptoms_in_foliage_Environ_Pollut_137_2005_455-465) (See Figure 2).","body_html":"<div class=\"md\"><p>Unfortunately, like so many things, <a href=\"https://www.researchgate.net/publication/248420923_Erratum_to_Diagnosis_of_abiotic_and_biotic_stress_factors_using_the_visible_symptoms_in_foliage_Environ_Pollut_137_2005_455-465\">the answer is "it depends."</a></p>\n\n<p>(And, to help you in your future searches, the term you're looking for is "leaf senescence".)</p>\n\n<p>Leaf senescence, the programmed dismantling and death of leaves, <a href=\"https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0070215305710036\">is controlled by a lot of factors</a>...age, environmental stress, damage, sugar consumption, chemical signals from elsewhere in the plant, etc. And consequently, the pattern of color change changes based on what's triggering the leaf senescence.</p>\n\n<p>If the leaves are senescing prematurely because of airborne stress (drought, for example) then leaves getting the most light will likely be the first to change. If the stress is coming from bad soil, the leaves will most likely all change at the same time. If the stress is coming from infection, the leaves may change in patchy or irregular patterns.</p>\n\n<p>But if we're looking at the programmed leaf senescence of plants that shed their leaves every autumn, it <em>still</em> depends...on the species. In an oak, the whole tree turns color at the same time. In a mature beech reaching the top of the forest canopy, the bits exposed to the sky will change before anything else...then generally the leaves turn top-to-bottom. The leaves of the mountain ash, however, turn bottom-to-top. <a href=\"https://www.researchgate.net/publication/248420923_Erratum_to_Diagnosis_of_abiotic_and_biotic_stress_factors_using_the_visible_symptoms_in_foliage_Environ_Pollut_137_2005_455-465\">You'll find nice pictures of all these examples in this paper on visible symptoms of stress factors in foliage.</a> (See Figure 2).</p>\n</div>","can_gild":false,"can_mod_post":false,"collapsed":false,"collapsed_because_crowd_control":null,"collapsed_reason":null,"collapsed_reason_code":null,"comment_type":null,"controversiality":0,"created":1745357409.0,"created_utc":1745357409.0,"distinguished":null,"downs":0,"edited":false,"gilded":0,"gildings":{},"id":"moi3np6","is_submitter":false,"likes":null,"link_id":"t3_1k4x7aa","locked":false,"mod_note":null,"mod_reason_by":null,"mod_reason_title":null,"mod_reports":[],"name":"t1_moi3np6","no_follow":true,"num_reports":null,"parent_id":"t3_1k4x7aa","permalink":"/r/askscience/comments/1k4x7aa/what_order_do_leaves_on_a_tree_change_color/moi3np6/","removal_reason":null,"replies":"","report_reasons":null,"saved":false,"score":1,"score_hidden":true,"send_replies":true,"stickied":false,"subreddit":"askscience","subreddit_id":"t5_2qm4e","subreddit_name_prefixed":"r/askscience","subreddit_type":"public","top_awarded_type":null,"total_awards_received":0,"treatment_tags":[],"unrepliable_reason":null,"ups":1,"user_reports":[]},{"all_awardings":[],"approved_at_utc":null,"approved_by":null,"archived":false,"associated_award":null,"author":"JustAGuyFromGermany","author_flair_background_color":null,"author_flair_css_class":null,"author_flair_richtext":[],"author_flair_template_id":null,"author_flair_text":null,"author_flair_text_color":null,"author_flair_type":"text","author_fullname":"t2_15fd0x","author_is_blocked":false,"author_patreon_flair":false,"author_premium":false,"awarders":[],"banned_at_utc":null,"banned_by":null,"body":"Scientist would need what they are finding today. Again, and again (results need to replicate robustly), and then some different completely independent biosignatures, and those again and again, and then some more, etc.\n\nThere probably won't ever be the ONE discovery that in and of itself proves the existence of life on another planet, no matter how much headline writers want that to be true. Science is an incremental process. And when direct evidence is so hard to come be, even more so.\n\nJust look at how long it's taking us to confirm liquid water on prehistoric mars. There was never the ONE discovery that confirmed it. Is was an ever-growing abundunance of individual pieces of evidence, each of which is not foolproof (or water proof so to speak ;-)), each of which *could* be explained away. But the mass of all of it together convinces us that the hypothesis is more likely to be true than not. And that's taken us decades. In fact, we're still kind of in the middle of it and there are still some scientists who are not convinced yet.\n\nFinding life on an alien planet will be the same. They will find some planets with weak biosignatures, then some more, then they will find the first planet that exhibits *two different* biosignatures and so on. And that will accumulate until it is more likely than not that life exists out there. And even then, it will at first be some kind of \"Well, it's incredibly unlikely that ALL of these planets have biosignatures on accident, but I don't know for sure about THAT specific one\". And it will take more time and more study and more tiny, incremental progress until we can finally smugly say \"Yes, of course there's life. It's over there! We've known that for decades, haven't you been paying attention!?\" with all the weight of hindsight ;-)","body_html":"<div class=\"md\"><p>Scientist would need what they are finding today. Again, and again (results need to replicate robustly), and then some different completely independent biosignatures, and those again and again, and then some more, etc.</p>\n\n<p>There probably won't ever be the ONE discovery that in and of itself proves the existence of life on another planet, no matter how much headline writers want that to be true. Science is an incremental process. And when direct evidence is so hard to come be, even more so.</p>\n\n<p>Just look at how long it's taking us to confirm liquid water on prehistoric mars. There was never the ONE discovery that confirmed it. Is was an ever-growing abundunance of individual pieces of evidence, each of which is not foolproof (or water proof so to speak ;-)), each of which <em>could</em> be explained away. But the mass of all of it together convinces us that the hypothesis is more likely to be true than not. And that's taken us decades. In fact, we're still kind of in the middle of it and there are still some scientists who are not convinced yet.</p>\n\n<p>Finding life on an alien planet will be the same. They will find some planets with weak biosignatures, then some more, then they will find the first planet that exhibits <em>two different</em> biosignatures and so on. And that will accumulate until it is more likely than not that life exists out there. And even then, it will at first be some kind of "Well, it's incredibly unlikely that ALL of these planets have biosignatures on accident, but I don't know for sure about THAT specific one". And it will take more time and more study and more tiny, incremental progress until we can finally smugly say "Yes, of course there's life. It's over there! We've known that for decades, haven't you been paying attention!?" with all the weight of hindsight ;-)</p>\n</div>","can_gild":false,"can_mod_post":false,"collapsed":false,"collapsed_because_crowd_control":null,"collapsed_reason":null,"collapsed_reason_code":null,"comment_type":null,"controversiality":0,"created":1745353298.0,"created_utc":1745353298.0,"distinguished":null,"downs":0,"edited":false,"gilded":0,"gildings":{},"id":"mohpzjd","is_submitter":false,"likes":null,"link_id":"t3_1k4lf6t","locked":false,"mod_note":null,"mod_reason_by":null,"mod_reason_title":null,"mod_reports":[],"name":"t1_mohpzjd","no_follow":true,"num_reports":null,"parent_id":"t3_1k4lf6t","permalink":"/r/askscience/comments/1k4lf6t/what_finding_would_it_take_for_scientists_to/mohpzjd/","removal_reason":null,"replies":"","report_reasons":null,"saved":false,"score":1,"score_hidden":true,"send_replies":true,"stickied":false,"subreddit":"askscience","subreddit_id":"t5_2qm4e","subreddit_name_prefixed":"r/askscience","subreddit_type":"public","top_awarded_type":null,"total_awards_received":0,"treatment_tags":[],"unrepliable_reason":null,"ups":1,"user_reports":[]},{"all_awardings":[],"approved_at_utc":null,"approved_by":null,"archived":false,"associated_award":null,"author":"hypnosifl","author_flair_background_color":null,"author_flair_css_class":null,"author_flair_richtext":[],"author_flair_template_id":null,"author_flair_text":null,"author_flair_text_color":null,"author_flair_type":"text","author_fullname":"t2_55fcu","author_is_blocked":false,"author_patreon_flair":false,"author_premium":false,"awarders":[],"banned_at_utc":null,"banned_by":null,"body":"I would say all category-defining boundaries in science are largely arbitrary (like boundaries between species, boundary between life and non-life, or the recently defined boundary between planets and dwarf planets) apart from maybe things like particle types in fundamental physics. But my motivation was that certain definitions, while still basically arbitrary, may at least be less anthropomorphic in sense that an intelligent non-human might converge on a similar definition if they were likewise looking for one that was not too centered on their own kind, i.e. a definition that could be a sort of [Schelling point](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Focal_point_%28game_theory%29). Alternatives along these lines could involve defining opacity/transparency relative to the frequency of the cosmic microwave background radiation (which probably wouldn't change things much relative to visible light, the main body of a gas giant is opaque to both), or just to replace the notion of a single surface radius with a set of wavelength-relative radii, like \"the 500 nm radius\".","body_html":"<div class=\"md\"><p>I would say all category-defining boundaries in science are largely arbitrary (like boundaries between species, boundary between life and non-life, or the recently defined boundary between planets and dwarf planets) apart from maybe things like particle types in fundamental physics. But my motivation was that certain definitions, while still basically arbitrary, may at least be less anthropomorphic in sense that an intelligent non-human might converge on a similar definition if they were likewise looking for one that was not too centered on their own kind, i.e. a definition that could be a sort of <a href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Focal_point_%28game_theory%29\">Schelling point</a>. Alternatives along these lines could involve defining opacity/transparency relative to the frequency of the cosmic microwave background radiation (which probably wouldn't change things much relative to visible light, the main body of a gas giant is opaque to both), or just to replace the notion of a single surface radius with a set of wavelength-relative radii, like "the 500 nm radius".</p>\n</div>","can_gild":false,"can_mod_post":false,"collapsed":false,"collapsed_because_crowd_control":null,"collapsed_reason":null,"collapsed_reason_code":null,"comment_type":null,"controversiality":0,"created":1745352012.0,"created_utc":1745352012.0,"distinguished":null,"downs":0,"edited":false,"gilded":0,"gildings":{},"id":"mohllcv","is_submitter":false,"likes":null,"link_id":"t3_1k4t44c","locked":false,"mod_note":null,"mod_reason_by":null,"mod_reason_title":null,"mod_reports":[],"name":"t1_mohllcv","no_follow":true,"num_reports":null,"parent_id":"t1_mohdwi3","permalink":"/r/askscience/comments/1k4t44c/do_gas_planets_still_have_a_rocky_core/mohllcv/","removal_reason":null,"replies":"","report_reasons":null,"saved":false,"score":1,"score_hidden":true,"send_replies":true,"stickied":false,"subreddit":"askscience","subreddit_id":"t5_2qm4e","subreddit_name_prefixed":"r/askscience","subreddit_type":"public","top_awarded_type":null,"total_awards_received":0,"treatment_tags":[],"unrepliable_reason":null,"ups":1,"user_reports":[]},{"all_awardings":[],"approved_at_utc":null,"approved_by":null,"archived":false,"associated_award":null,"author":"paulfdietz","author_flair_background_color":null,"author_flair_css_class":null,"author_flair_richtext":[],"author_flair_template_id":null,"author_flair_text":null,"author_flair_text_color":null,"author_flair_type":"text","author_fullname":"t2_2q5641y","author_is_blocked":false,"author_patreon_flair":false,"author_premium":false,"awarders":[],"banned_at_utc":null,"banned_by":null,"body":"Also, because Jupiter is rotating, it's not a sphere.  That means the higher order moments of its gravitational field are sensitive to the distribution of mass with depth.  The Juno spacecraft has been accurately measuring Jupiter's gravitational field to get data from which the mass distribution can be estimated.\n\nhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravity_science_(Juno)","body_html":"<div class=\"md\"><p>Also, because Jupiter is rotating, it's not a sphere.  That means the higher order moments of its gravitational field are sensitive to the distribution of mass with depth.  The Juno spacecraft has been accurately measuring Jupiter's gravitational field to get data from which the mass distribution can be estimated.</p>\n\n<p><a href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravity_science_(Juno)\">https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravity_science_(Juno)</a></p>\n</div>","can_gild":false,"can_mod_post":false,"collapsed":false,"collapsed_because_crowd_control":null,"collapsed_reason":null,"collapsed_reason_code":null,"comment_type":null,"controversiality":0,"created":1745336169.0,"created_utc":1745336169.0,"distinguished":null,"downs":0,"edited":false,"gilded":0,"gildings":{},"id":"mog3akp","is_submitter":false,"likes":null,"link_id":"t3_1k4t44c","locked":false,"mod_note":null,"mod_reason_by":null,"mod_reason_title":null,"mod_reports":[],"name":"t1_mog3akp","no_follow":true,"num_reports":null,"parent_id":"t1_moekhea","permalink":"/r/askscience/comments/1k4t44c/do_gas_planets_still_have_a_rocky_core/mog3akp/","removal_reason":null,"replies":"","report_reasons":null,"saved":false,"score":1,"score_hidden":true,"send_replies":true,"stickied":false,"subreddit":"askscience","subreddit_id":"t5_2qm4e","subreddit_name_prefixed":"r/askscience","subreddit_type":"public","top_awarded_type":null,"total_awards_received":0,"treatment_tags":[],"unrepliable_reason":null,"ups":1,"user_reports":[]},{"all_awardings":[],"approved_at_utc":null,"approved_by":null,"archived":false,"associated_award":null,"author":"dpzdpz","author_flair_background_color":null,"author_flair_css_class":null,"author_flair_richtext":[],"author_flair_template_id":null,"author_flair_text":null,"author_flair_text_color":null,"author_flair_type":"text","author_fullname":"t2_115ca","author_is_blocked":false,"author_patreon_flair":false,"author_premium":false,"awarders":[],"banned_at_utc":null,"banned_by":null,"body":"Superlative answer!!\n\nIt also makes one think of the virus: life or not life?  And are there other in-between states that are not observable on earth, but do exist elsewhere?  It's a fascinating question to meditate on.  You bring up a good point: is this more the realm of philosophy/theology, or science?","body_html":"<div class=\"md\"><p>Superlative answer!!</p>\n\n<p>It also makes one think of the virus: life or not life?  And are there other in-between states that are not observable on earth, but do exist elsewhere?  It's a fascinating question to meditate on.  You bring up a good point: is this more the realm of philosophy/theology, or science?</p>\n</div>","can_gild":false,"can_mod_post":false,"collapsed":false,"collapsed_because_crowd_control":null,"collapsed_reason":null,"collapsed_reason_code":null,"comment_type":null,"controversiality":0,"created":1745318221.0,"created_utc":1745318221.0,"distinguished":null,"downs":0,"edited":false,"gilded":0,"gildings":{},"id":"moepvsv","is_submitter":false,"likes":null,"link_id":"t3_1k4lf6t","locked":false,"mod_note":null,"mod_reason_by":null,"mod_reason_title":null,"mod_reports":[],"name":"t1_moepvsv","no_follow":true,"num_reports":null,"parent_id":"t1_mocbl6f","permalink":"/r/askscience/comments/1k4lf6t/what_finding_would_it_take_for_scientists_to/moepvsv/","removal_reason":null,"replies":"","report_reasons":null,"saved":false,"score":1,"score_hidden":true,"send_replies":true,"stickied":false,"subreddit":"askscience","subreddit_id":"t5_2qm4e","subreddit_name_prefixed":"r/askscience","subreddit_type":"public","top_awarded_type":null,"total_awards_received":0,"treatment_tags":[],"unrepliable_reason":null,"ups":1,"user_reports":[]},{"all_awardings":[],"approved_at_utc":null,"approved_by":null,"archived":false,"associated_award":null,"author":"OlympusMons94","author_flair_background_color":null,"author_flair_css_class":null,"author_flair_richtext":[],"author_flair_template_id":null,"author_flair_text":null,"author_flair_text_color":null,"author_flair_type":"text","author_fullname":"t2_4gpe3ud6","author_is_blocked":false,"author_patreon_flair":false,"author_premium":false,"awarders":[],"banned_at_utc":null,"banned_by":null,"body":"There is some *in situ* data from the [Galileo atmospheric probe](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_project#Atmospheric_probe), which survived through 180 km into Jupiter's upper atmosphere (~140 km below the 1 bar \"surface\").\n\nSeismology is not the only way to remotely get data on planetary interiors. For example mapping and analysis of the gravity field is another important method. Precise tracking of small changes in the velocity of spacecraft as they orbit a planet reveal small lateral variations in gravitational acceleration, allowing the planet's gravity field to be mapped. The gravity field allows us to infer the internal structure and mass distribution. The discovery that the cores of Jupiter and Saturn are large and dilute is largely based on the gravity fields of Jupiter and Saturn measured by Juno and Cassini, respectively--in combination with [equations of state](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equation_of_state) and numerical models that tell how materials behave in their interiors.\n\nLab experiments producing the compositions and conditions in deep interiors, to some extent [even for Jupiter](https://www.sciencenews.org/article/helium-rain-jupiter-pressure-laser-experiments-physics) also provide real data.\n\nA seismometer capable of working on the surface of Venus [could be built](https://www.uaf.edu/news/uaf-researchers-aiding-nasa-in-developing-venus-seismometer.php), or alternatively, [barometric sensors on baloons](https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2022GL100978) could detect sound waves from Venus quakes.\n\nThe Sun is studied through [helioseismology](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helioseismology), and similar methods are [applicable to Jovian planets.](https://www.aanda.org/articles/aa/full_html/2011/07/aa16903-11/aa16903-11.html) ([see also](https://astrobites.org/2011/07/05/quakes-on-jupiter-a-new-look-at-a-familiar-object/).\n\nThe idea of seismology can be further extended to analyzing density waves in the rings of Saturn (e.g., [Hedman and Njcholson, 2013](https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/0004-6256/146/1/12); [Fuller, 2014](https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0019103514004205?via%3Dihub); [French et al., 2019](https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0019103518303397?via%3Dihub); [Mankovich and Fuller, 2021](https://www.nature.com/articles/s41550-021-01448-3)). Ring seismology by Mankovich and Fuller (2021) provides [further support for the dilute core of Saturn](https://www.caltech.edu/about/news/saturn-makes-waves-in-its-own-rings).","body_html":"<div class=\"md\"><p>There is some <em>in situ</em> data from the <a href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_project#Atmospheric_probe\">Galileo atmospheric probe</a>, which survived through 180 km into Jupiter's upper atmosphere (~140 km below the 1 bar "surface").</p>\n\n<p>Seismology is not the only way to remotely get data on planetary interiors. For example mapping and analysis of the gravity field is another important method. Precise tracking of small changes in the velocity of spacecraft as they orbit a planet reveal small lateral variations in gravitational acceleration, allowing the planet's gravity field to be mapped. The gravity field allows us to infer the internal structure and mass distribution. The discovery that the cores of Jupiter and Saturn are large and dilute is largely based on the gravity fields of Jupiter and Saturn measured by Juno and Cassini, respectively--in combination with <a href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equation_of_state\">equations of state</a> and numerical models that tell how materials behave in their interiors.</p>\n\n<p>Lab experiments producing the compositions and conditions in deep interiors, to some extent <a href=\"https://www.sciencenews.org/article/helium-rain-jupiter-pressure-laser-experiments-physics\">even for Jupiter</a> also provide real data.</p>\n\n<p>A seismometer capable of working on the surface of Venus <a href=\"https://www.uaf.edu/news/uaf-researchers-aiding-nasa-in-developing-venus-seismometer.php\">could be built</a>, or alternatively, <a href=\"https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2022GL100978\">barometric sensors on baloons</a> could detect sound waves from Venus quakes.</p>\n\n<p>The Sun is studied through <a href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helioseismology\">helioseismology</a>, and similar methods are <a href=\"https://www.aanda.org/articles/aa/full_html/2011/07/aa16903-11/aa16903-11.html\">applicable to Jovian planets.</a> (<a href=\"https://astrobites.org/2011/07/05/quakes-on-jupiter-a-new-look-at-a-familiar-object/\">see also</a>.</p>\n\n<p>The idea of seismology can be further extended to analyzing density waves in the rings of Saturn (e.g., <a href=\"https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/0004-6256/146/1/12\">Hedman and Njcholson, 2013</a>; <a href=\"https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0019103514004205?via%3Dihub\">Fuller, 2014</a>; <a href=\"https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0019103518303397?via%3Dihub\">French et al., 2019</a>; <a href=\"https://www.nature.com/articles/s41550-021-01448-3\">Mankovich and Fuller, 2021</a>). Ring seismology by Mankovich and Fuller (2021) provides <a href=\"https://www.caltech.edu/about/news/saturn-makes-waves-in-its-own-rings\">further support for the dilute core of Saturn</a>.</p>\n</div>","can_gild":false,"can_mod_post":false,"collapsed":false,"collapsed_because_crowd_control":null,"collapsed_reason":null,"collapsed_reason_code":null,"comment_type":null,"controversiality":0,"created":1745316087.0,"created_utc":1745316087.0,"distinguished":null,"downs":0,"edited":1745318061.0,"gilded":0,"gildings":{},"id":"moem589","is_submitter":false,"likes":null,"link_id":"t3_1k4t44c","locked":false,"mod_note":null,"mod_reason_by":null,"mod_reason_title":null,"mod_reports":[],"name":"t1_moem589","no_follow":true,"num_reports":null,"parent_id":"t1_moduygk","permalink":"/r/askscience/comments/1k4t44c/do_gas_planets_still_have_a_rocky_core/moem589/","removal_reason":null,"replies":"","report_reasons":null,"saved":false,"score":1,"score_hidden":true,"send_replies":true,"stickied":false,"subreddit":"askscience","subreddit_id":"t5_2qm4e","subreddit_name_prefixed":"r/askscience","subreddit_type":"public","top_awarded_type":null,"total_awards_received":0,"treatment_tags":[],"unrepliable_reason":null,"ups":1,"user_reports":[]},{"all_awardings":[],"approved_at_utc":null,"approved_by":null,"archived":false,"associated_award":null,"author":"lmxbftw","author_flair_background_color":"","author_flair_css_class":"astro","author_flair_richtext":[],"author_flair_template_id":null,"author_flair_text":"Black holes | Binary evolution | Accretion","author_flair_text_color":"dark","author_flair_type":"text","author_fullname":"t2_6n7di","author_is_blocked":false,"author_patreon_flair":false,"author_premium":false,"awarders":[],"banned_at_utc":null,"banned_by":null,"body":"I'm assuming you mean \"publicize\" instead of \"publish\" to the public - the papers should definitely be open access in my opinion (and are, through arXiv.org). I think it is possible to responsibly report to the public on incremental progress in this area. I do question whether this specific release from the University of Cambridge does that. The science paper itself I think frames things fairly responsibly, though one can certainly argue about the approach in some places and some people do, but it does seem to me that there is a disconnect between the presentation of the analysis in the peer-reviewed paper with the framing present in the press release in this instance. I think scientists also need to understand generally that caveats in a science paper do not translate well into public coverage in headlines. An 80 character headline will never carry nuance.","body_html":"<div class=\"md\"><p>I'm assuming you mean "publicize" instead of "publish" to the public - the papers should definitely be open access in my opinion (and are, through arXiv.org). I think it is possible to responsibly report to the public on incremental progress in this area. I do question whether this specific release from the University of Cambridge does that. The science paper itself I think frames things fairly responsibly, though one can certainly argue about the approach in some places and some people do, but it does seem to me that there is a disconnect between the presentation of the analysis in the peer-reviewed paper with the framing present in the press release in this instance. I think scientists also need to understand generally that caveats in a science paper do not translate well into public coverage in headlines. An 80 character headline will never carry nuance.</p>\n</div>","can_gild":false,"can_mod_post":false,"collapsed":false,"collapsed_because_crowd_control":null,"collapsed_reason":null,"collapsed_reason_code":null,"comment_type":null,"controversiality":0,"created":1745278191.0,"created_utc":1745278191.0,"distinguished":null,"downs":0,"edited":false,"gilded":0,"gildings":{},"id":"mocbq4a","is_submitter":false,"likes":null,"link_id":"t3_1k4lf6t","locked":false,"mod_note":null,"mod_reason_by":null,"mod_reason_title":null,"mod_reports":[],"name":"t1_mocbq4a","no_follow":true,"num_reports":null,"parent_id":"t1_moc1rry","permalink":"/r/askscience/comments/1k4lf6t/what_finding_would_it_take_for_scientists_to/mocbq4a/","removal_reason":null,"replies":"","report_reasons":null,"saved":false,"score":1,"score_hidden":true,"send_replies":true,"stickied":false,"subreddit":"askscience","subreddit_id":"t5_2qm4e","subreddit_name_prefixed":"r/askscience","subreddit_type":"public","top_awarded_type":null,"total_awards_received":0,"treatment_tags":[],"unrepliable_reason":null,"ups":1,"user_reports":[]},{"all_awardings":[],"approved_at_utc":null,"approved_by":null,"archived":false,"associated_award":null,"author":"madz33","author_flair_background_color":null,"author_flair_css_class":null,"author_flair_richtext":[],"author_flair_template_id":null,"author_flair_text":null,"author_flair_text_color":null,"author_flair_type":"text","author_fullname":"t2_5xaid","author_is_blocked":false,"author_patreon_flair":false,"author_premium":false,"awarders":[],"banned_at_utc":null,"banned_by":null,"body":"Something which is often missing from this discussion is that we simply don't have a \"theory of life\" which can be scientifically evaluated. In my research I detect molecules in exoplanet atmospheres which are in disequilibrium, which means the molecule is overabundant when compared with expectations. This disequilibrium is only possible when the source of the molecule is replenishing the supply faster than other processes can remove it. Life on Earth can be functionally thought of as a disequilibrium process which drives certain molecules out of equilibrium, most notably molecular oxygen. However, there are plenty of physical (non biological) processes which can drive different kinds of chemical disequilibrium, in my field it is often from turbulent fluid mixing in the atmosphere.\n\nSo even if, in the best case scenario, science can reliably detect (multiple) molecules at disequilibrium abundances, and these molecules can be shown to be consistent with a chemical network which is possible in living organisms, there will always be some uncertainty with respect to the notion that these chemical reactions are because of \"life\" and not some other organic chemistry which is occurring due to unknown geophysical processes. (Some astronomers even detect organic compounds in interstellar space.)\n\nWe can reframe this dilemma in the question of the origin of life on Earth. If you agree with the [Hot Spring Hypothesis for the origin of life](https://www.liebertpub.com/doi/10.1089/ast.2019.2045), (which in my opinion is well evidenced and fascinating) at some point in Earth's history geophysical processes bootstrapped the production of organic compounds which set the stage for \"living matter\" to rise out of the abiotic mud. At what point did those processes become \"alive?\" (This is a kind of \"paradox of the heap of sand.\") Maybe there was a sharp phase transition as the living biosphere emerged and crystallized or maybe there was a slow and gradual complexification of the available precursor molecules. Or perhaps the distinction between living and non-living matter is simply an illusion, but this isn't askTheology.\n\nIn the context of remote sensing of biosignature molecules, I don't think this dilemma has even been meaningfully approached scientifically, even as we evaluate spending billions of dollars on a next generation instrument to search for habitable worlds.","body_html":"<div class=\"md\"><p>Something which is often missing from this discussion is that we simply don't have a "theory of life" which can be scientifically evaluated. In my research I detect molecules in exoplanet atmospheres which are in disequilibrium, which means the molecule is overabundant when compared with expectations. This disequilibrium is only possible when the source of the molecule is replenishing the supply faster than other processes can remove it. Life on Earth can be functionally thought of as a disequilibrium process which drives certain molecules out of equilibrium, most notably molecular oxygen. However, there are plenty of physical (non biological) processes which can drive different kinds of chemical disequilibrium, in my field it is often from turbulent fluid mixing in the atmosphere.</p>\n\n<p>So even if, in the best case scenario, science can reliably detect (multiple) molecules at disequilibrium abundances, and these molecules can be shown to be consistent with a chemical network which is possible in living organisms, there will always be some uncertainty with respect to the notion that these chemical reactions are because of "life" and not some other organic chemistry which is occurring due to unknown geophysical processes. (Some astronomers even detect organic compounds in interstellar space.)</p>\n\n<p>We can reframe this dilemma in the question of the origin of life on Earth. If you agree with the <a href=\"https://www.liebertpub.com/doi/10.1089/ast.2019.2045\">Hot Spring Hypothesis for the origin of life</a>, (which in my opinion is well evidenced and fascinating) at some point in Earth's history geophysical processes bootstrapped the production of organic compounds which set the stage for "living matter" to rise out of the abiotic mud. At what point did those processes become "alive?" (This is a kind of "paradox of the heap of sand.") Maybe there was a sharp phase transition as the living biosphere emerged and crystallized or maybe there was a slow and gradual complexification of the available precursor molecules. Or perhaps the distinction between living and non-living matter is simply an illusion, but this isn't askTheology.</p>\n\n<p>In the context of remote sensing of biosignature molecules, I don't think this dilemma has even been meaningfully approached scientifically, even as we evaluate spending billions of dollars on a next generation instrument to search for habitable worlds.</p>\n</div>","can_gild":false,"can_mod_post":false,"collapsed":false,"collapsed_because_crowd_control":null,"collapsed_reason":null,"collapsed_reason_code":null,"comment_type":null,"controversiality":0,"created":1745278145.0,"created_utc":1745278145.0,"distinguished":null,"downs":0,"edited":false,"gilded":0,"gildings":{},"id":"mocbl6f","is_submitter":false,"likes":null,"link_id":"t3_1k4lf6t","locked":false,"mod_note":null,"mod_reason_by":null,"mod_reason_title":null,"mod_reports":[],"name":"t1_mocbl6f","no_follow":true,"num_reports":null,"parent_id":"t3_1k4lf6t","permalink":"/r/askscience/comments/1k4lf6t/what_finding_would_it_take_for_scientists_to/mocbl6f/","removal_reason":null,"replies":"","report_reasons":null,"saved":false,"score":1,"score_hidden":true,"send_replies":true,"stickied":false,"subreddit":"askscience","subreddit_id":"t5_2qm4e","subreddit_name_prefixed":"r/askscience","subreddit_type":"public","top_awarded_type":null,"total_awards_received":0,"treatment_tags":[],"unrepliable_reason":null,"ups":1,"user_reports":[]},{"all_awardings":[],"approved_at_utc":null,"approved_by":null,"archived":false,"associated_award":null,"author":"lmxbftw","author_flair_background_color":"","author_flair_css_class":"astro","author_flair_richtext":[],"author_flair_template_id":null,"author_flair_text":"Black holes | Binary evolution | Accretion","author_flair_text_color":"dark","author_flair_type":"text","author_fullname":"t2_6n7di","author_is_blocked":false,"author_patreon_flair":false,"author_premium":false,"awarders":[],"banned_at_utc":null,"banned_by":null,"body":"Realistically, confirming biosignatures is going to be the work of many years. It will take the overlapping detections of *several* different molecules, at multiple wavelengths each, that are detected in abundances inconsistent with geological or photochemical processes, while *at the same time* laboratory work and computer modeling of exoplanet atmosphere is improved to match the current data quality provided by telescopes like JWST, or the Habitable Worlds Observatory in the future. The odds are that there's not going to be a single \"Eureka!\" detection. \n\nIn regards to the recent press on K2-18b, I am not an exoplanet scientist but I do work alongside several that I have talked to about this result. [There](https://www.theatlantic.com/science/archive/2025/04/k2-18b-possible-sign-of-life/682505/?gift=oeoR8ZKkbyVoaK7WjOUzoP0rMX9fMIyDAe7YZGm0j1E&utm_source=copy-link&utm_medium=social&utm_campaign=share) are [some issues](https://bsky.app/profile/distantworlds.space/post/3lmzihugafk2x) to consider in interpreting the publicized paper. From [multiple angles](https://bsky.app/profile/chrislintott.bsky.social/post/3lmy5sdsv5s27). While those are public-level articles or threads about it, here are scientific papers for the interested: [paper 1](https://arxiv.org/abs/2504.12030), [paper 2](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2024ApJ...973L..38R/abstract), [paper 3](https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2025arXiv250118477S/abstract). Needless to say, it's an active discussion and an exciting time for exoplanet scientists, but caution is warranted and certainty is not going to be had any time soon.","body_html":"<div class=\"md\"><p>Realistically, confirming biosignatures is going to be the work of many years. It will take the overlapping detections of <em>several</em> different molecules, at multiple wavelengths each, that are detected in abundances inconsistent with geological or photochemical processes, while <em>at the same time</em> laboratory work and computer modeling of exoplanet atmosphere is improved to match the current data quality provided by telescopes like JWST, or the Habitable Worlds Observatory in the future. The odds are that there's not going to be a single "Eureka!" detection. </p>\n\n<p>In regards to the recent press on K2-18b, I am not an exoplanet scientist but I do work alongside several that I have talked to about this result. <a href=\"https://www.theatlantic.com/science/archive/2025/04/k2-18b-possible-sign-of-life/682505/?gift=oeoR8ZKkbyVoaK7WjOUzoP0rMX9fMIyDAe7YZGm0j1E&utm_source=copy-link&utm_medium=social&utm_campaign=share\">There</a> are <a href=\"https://bsky.app/profile/distantworlds.space/post/3lmzihugafk2x\">some issues</a> to consider in interpreting the publicized paper. From <a href=\"https://bsky.app/profile/chrislintott.bsky.social/post/3lmy5sdsv5s27\">multiple angles</a>. While those are public-level articles or threads about it, here are scientific papers for the interested: <a href=\"https://arxiv.org/abs/2504.12030\">paper 1</a>, <a href=\"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2024ApJ...973L..38R/abstract\">paper 2</a>, <a href=\"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2025arXiv250118477S/abstract\">paper 3</a>. Needless to say, it's an active discussion and an exciting time for exoplanet scientists, but caution is warranted and certainty is not going to be had any time soon.</p>\n</div>","can_gild":false,"can_mod_post":false,"collapsed":false,"collapsed_because_crowd_control":null,"collapsed_reason":null,"collapsed_reason_code":null,"comment_type":null,"controversiality":0,"created":1745271362.0,"created_utc":1745271362.0,"distinguished":null,"downs":0,"edited":false,"gilded":0,"gildings":{},"id":"mobr9q0","is_submitter":false,"likes":null,"link_id":"t3_1k4lf6t","locked":false,"mod_note":null,"mod_reason_by":null,"mod_reason_title":null,"mod_reports":[],"name":"t1_mobr9q0","no_follow":true,"num_reports":null,"parent_id":"t3_1k4lf6t","permalink":"/r/askscience/comments/1k4lf6t/what_finding_would_it_take_for_scientists_to/mobr9q0/","removal_reason":null,"replies":"","report_reasons":null,"saved":false,"score":1,"score_hidden":true,"send_replies":true,"stickied":false,"subreddit":"askscience","subreddit_id":"t5_2qm4e","subreddit_name_prefixed":"r/askscience","subreddit_type":"public","top_awarded_type":null,"total_awards_received":0,"treatment_tags":[],"unrepliable_reason":null,"ups":1,"user_reports":[]},{"all_awardings":[],"approved_at_utc":null,"approved_by":null,"archived":false,"associated_award":null,"author":"Bigest_Smol_Employee","author_flair_background_color":null,"author_flair_css_class":null,"author_flair_richtext":[],"author_flair_template_id":null,"author_flair_text":null,"author_flair_text_color":null,"author_flair_type":"text","author_fullname":"t2_16b3upcmy2","author_is_blocked":false,"author_patreon_flair":false,"author_premium":false,"awarders":[],"banned_at_utc":null,"banned_by":null,"body":"I remember back in high school, I got super obsessed with geology after this one field trip where we got to visit an old quarry. Our guide was talking about how each layer of rock tells a story, like going back in time. That stuck with me for years. I even did a whole science fair project on core sampling and how deep drilling can reveal ancient climate data. It blew my mind that we could learn about volcano eruptions, asteroid impacts, and even ancient microbial life just from digging down far enough. My project didn't win anything but it kinda sparked this lifelong curiosity about the Earth and what\u2019s literally beneath our feet.\n\nLater on in college, I took a few earth science classes and learned about stuff like the Kola Superdeep Borehole, and it just made me wish we invested more into that kind of exploration. I know it\u2019s expensive and technically insane to drill super deep, but who knows what we\u2019d find? There\u2019s still so much mystery in the ground below us. And with all the tech we got now, it feels like we\u2019re missing out by not digging deeper\u2014literally. It\u2019s not just about oil or gas, it\u2019s about understanding the planet and even maybe figuring out how to better predict earthquakes or other disasters.","body_html":"<div class=\"md\"><p>I remember back in high school, I got super obsessed with geology after this one field trip where we got to visit an old quarry. Our guide was talking about how each layer of rock tells a story, like going back in time. That stuck with me for years. I even did a whole science fair project on core sampling and how deep drilling can reveal ancient climate data. It blew my mind that we could learn about volcano eruptions, asteroid impacts, and even ancient microbial life just from digging down far enough. My project didn't win anything but it kinda sparked this lifelong curiosity about the Earth and what\u2019s literally beneath our feet.</p>\n\n<p>Later on in college, I took a few earth science classes and learned about stuff like the Kola Superdeep Borehole, and it just made me wish we invested more into that kind of exploration. I know it\u2019s expensive and technically insane to drill super deep, but who knows what we\u2019d find? There\u2019s still so much mystery in the ground below us. And with all the tech we got now, it feels like we\u2019re missing out by not digging deeper\u2014literally. It\u2019s not just about oil or gas, it\u2019s about understanding the planet and even maybe figuring out how to better predict earthquakes or other disasters.</p>\n</div>","can_gild":false,"can_mod_post":false,"collapsed":false,"collapsed_because_crowd_control":null,"collapsed_reason":null,"collapsed_reason_code":null,"comment_type":null,"controversiality":0,"created":1745258730.0,"created_utc":1745258730.0,"distinguished":null,"downs":0,"edited":false,"gilded":0,"gildings":{},"id":"moakvvb","is_submitter":false,"likes":null,"link_id":"t3_1k48e40","locked":false,"mod_note":null,"mod_reason_by":null,"mod_reason_title":null,"mod_reports":[],"name":"t1_moakvvb","no_follow":false,"num_reports":null,"parent_id":"t3_1k48e40","permalink":"/r/askscience/comments/1k48e40/is_there_any_reason_to_try_and_dig_as_deep_of_a/moakvvb/","removal_reason":null,"replies":"","report_reasons":null,"saved":false,"score":1,"score_hidden":true,"send_replies":true,"stickied":false,"subreddit":"askscience","subreddit_id":"t5_2qm4e","subreddit_name_prefixed":"r/askscience","subreddit_type":"public","top_awarded_type":null,"total_awards_received":0,"treatment_tags":[],"unrepliable_reason":null,"ups":1,"user_reports":[]},{"all_awardings":[],"approved_at_utc":null,"approved_by":null,"archived":false,"associated_award":null,"author":"CrustalTrudger","author_flair_background_color":"","author_flair_css_class":"geo","author_flair_richtext":[],"author_flair_template_id":null,"author_flair_text":"Tectonics | Structural Geology | Geomorphology","author_flair_text_color":"dark","author_flair_type":"text","author_fullname":"t2_ee0f4","author_is_blocked":false,"author_patreon_flair":false,"author_premium":true,"awarders":[],"banned_at_utc":null,"banned_by":null,"body":">I know the Soviets dug the deepest man made hole back in the 70s\n\nWhile a bit semantic, for getting a sense of the appropriate scale it's worth clarifying that they didn't dig a hole, they drilled an ~9 inch wide borehole, specifically the [Kola superdeep well](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kola_Superdeep_Borehole). Still a technical feat, but decidedly different than digging something akin to a mineshaft to those depths. Also, while drilling began in the 1970s they didn't hit the record depth until 1989 (it was not constantly active for that whole time, i.e., it did not take 20 years of consistent drilling to reach that depth or something) and activities continued there until the mid 90s.\n\n>and it seems nobody has tried anything like it since, I assume for good reasons.\n\nThat's not really true. There were a variety of deep wells that both preceded and followed Kola. This [section of the Kola wiki](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kola_Superdeep_Borehole#Similar_projects) discusses a few of them, e.g., [Project Mohole](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_Mohole), which was an attempt to drill into the mantle - that preceded Kola, but effectively kicked off things like the [DSDP](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep_Sea_Drilling_Project), [ODP](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_Drilling_Program), and [IODP](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_Ocean_Drilling_Program), which along various other drilling programs have drilled a lot of holes in the crust for research purposes, though none have reached the depths of Kola and the majority of these are relatively shallow in comparison. However, sites like KTB in Germany and Shendi Take 1 in China have come relatively close to the depths of Kola in the time since.\n\n> Would it benefit humanity in any way to make another attempt with 50+ years of technological advancements? \n\nAs discussed above, it's not as though Kola was the last time we engaged in concerted efforts to drill into the crust for scientific research. From compiled maps of site locations for programs like [DSDP, ODP, and IODP](https://iodp.tamu.edu/scienceops/maps/iodp_odp_dsdp.pdf), which focused on drilling in the oceans and the [International Continental Scientific Drilling program](https://www.icdp-online.org/projects/drilling-projects/all-projects-1/), you can see that we've drilled in a relatively large number of locations for scientific purposes (there are of course a lot of other drill sites done for industry, and some data from these is available publicly, but a lot of that is held privately). Now, for the vast majority of these, they have very specific scientific targets and very few (if any) have a specific goal of \"drilling as deep as possible\". Similarly, if you look up the details of most of these, they were drilled to a fraction of the depth of Kola or comparable \"super-deep\" wells. \n\nIn a general sense, and in a more direct answer to your question, yes, drilling very deep holes would still of course be scientifically important, in large part because what more shallow drilling, like those documented above, has highlighted that there is a lot of variability, so we would undoubtedly learn something new with more super-deep holes in nearly any location. That, however, ends up being both the reason for and against attempts to drill super-deep holes. I.e., given that there is pretty much always limited resources in terms of money, time, and equipment for these kind of endeavors, the choice generally has been to go for coverage and more drill sites in more locations than a concentrated effort to drill *really deep* in a smaller number of locations, in large part because the cost and effort of drilling increases dramatically with depth. That being said, there are still lots of discussions about trying to drill into the mantle in semi-normal areas of the ocean floor (as opposed to successful attempts to drill into the mantle in regions where sections of the mantle are somewhat anomalously shallow, like the location documented in [Lissenberg et al., 2024](https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adp1058)), e.g., [this piece that goes through a lot of the history of prior attempts](https://www.whoi.edu/oceanus/feature/the-quest-for-the-moho/), but even with technological improvements, it remains a very costly effort that generally has not been an appealing use of resources.","body_html":"<div class=\"md\"><blockquote>\n<p>I know the Soviets dug the deepest man made hole back in the 70s</p>\n</blockquote>\n\n<p>While a bit semantic, for getting a sense of the appropriate scale it's worth clarifying that they didn't dig a hole, they drilled an ~9 inch wide borehole, specifically the <a href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kola_Superdeep_Borehole\">Kola superdeep well</a>. Still a technical feat, but decidedly different than digging something akin to a mineshaft to those depths. Also, while drilling began in the 1970s they didn't hit the record depth until 1989 (it was not constantly active for that whole time, i.e., it did not take 20 years of consistent drilling to reach that depth or something) and activities continued there until the mid 90s.</p>\n\n<blockquote>\n<p>and it seems nobody has tried anything like it since, I assume for good reasons.</p>\n</blockquote>\n\n<p>That's not really true. There were a variety of deep wells that both preceded and followed Kola. This <a href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kola_Superdeep_Borehole#Similar_projects\">section of the Kola wiki</a> discusses a few of them, e.g., <a href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_Mohole\">Project Mohole</a>, which was an attempt to drill into the mantle - that preceded Kola, but effectively kicked off things like the <a href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep_Sea_Drilling_Project\">DSDP</a>, <a href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ocean_Drilling_Program\">ODP</a>, and <a href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_Ocean_Drilling_Program\">IODP</a>, which along various other drilling programs have drilled a lot of holes in the crust for research purposes, though none have reached the depths of Kola and the majority of these are relatively shallow in comparison. However, sites like KTB in Germany and Shendi Take 1 in China have come relatively close to the depths of Kola in the time since.</p>\n\n<blockquote>\n<p>Would it benefit humanity in any way to make another attempt with 50+ years of technological advancements? </p>\n</blockquote>\n\n<p>As discussed above, it's not as though Kola was the last time we engaged in concerted efforts to drill into the crust for scientific research. From compiled maps of site locations for programs like <a href=\"https://iodp.tamu.edu/scienceops/maps/iodp_odp_dsdp.pdf\">DSDP, ODP, and IODP</a>, which focused on drilling in the oceans and the <a href=\"https://www.icdp-online.org/projects/drilling-projects/all-projects-1/\">International Continental Scientific Drilling program</a>, you can see that we've drilled in a relatively large number of locations for scientific purposes (there are of course a lot of other drill sites done for industry, and some data from these is available publicly, but a lot of that is held privately). Now, for the vast majority of these, they have very specific scientific targets and very few (if any) have a specific goal of "drilling as deep as possible". Similarly, if you look up the details of most of these, they were drilled to a fraction of the depth of Kola or comparable "super-deep" wells. </p>\n\n<p>In a general sense, and in a more direct answer to your question, yes, drilling very deep holes would still of course be scientifically important, in large part because what more shallow drilling, like those documented above, has highlighted that there is a lot of variability, so we would undoubtedly learn something new with more super-deep holes in nearly any location. That, however, ends up being both the reason for and against attempts to drill super-deep holes. I.e., given that there is pretty much always limited resources in terms of money, time, and equipment for these kind of endeavors, the choice generally has been to go for coverage and more drill sites in more locations than a concentrated effort to drill <em>really deep</em> in a smaller number of locations, in large part because the cost and effort of drilling increases dramatically with depth. That being said, there are still lots of discussions about trying to drill into the mantle in semi-normal areas of the ocean floor (as opposed to successful attempts to drill into the mantle in regions where sections of the mantle are somewhat anomalously shallow, like the location documented in <a href=\"https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adp1058\">Lissenberg et al., 2024</a>), e.g., <a href=\"https://www.whoi.edu/oceanus/feature/the-quest-for-the-moho/\">this piece that goes through a lot of the history of prior attempts</a>, but even with technological improvements, it remains a very costly effort that generally has not been an appealing use of resources.</p>\n</div>","can_gild":false,"can_mod_post":false,"collapsed":false,"collapsed_because_crowd_control":null,"collapsed_reason":null,"collapsed_reason_code":null,"comment_type":null,"controversiality":0,"created":1745252953.0,"created_utc":1745252953.0,"distinguished":null,"downs":0,"edited":false,"gilded":0,"gildings":{},"id":"moa0x76","is_submitter":false,"likes":null,"link_id":"t3_1k48e40","locked":false,"mod_note":null,"mod_reason_by":null,"mod_reason_title":null,"mod_reports":[],"name":"t1_moa0x76","no_follow":true,"num_reports":null,"parent_id":"t3_1k48e40","permalink":"/r/askscience/comments/1k48e40/is_there_any_reason_to_try_and_dig_as_deep_of_a/moa0x76/","removal_reason":null,"replies":"","report_reasons":null,"saved":false,"score":1,"score_hidden":true,"send_replies":true,"stickied":false,"subreddit":"askscience","subreddit_id":"t5_2qm4e","subreddit_name_prefixed":"r/askscience","subreddit_type":"public","top_awarded_type":null,"total_awards_received":0,"treatment_tags":[],"unrepliable_reason":null,"ups":1,"user_reports":[]},{"all_awardings":[],"approved_at_utc":null,"approved_by":null,"archived":false,"associated_award":null,"author":"Qwernakus","author_flair_background_color":null,"author_flair_css_class":null,"author_flair_richtext":[],"author_flair_template_id":null,"author_flair_text":null,"author_flair_text_color":null,"author_flair_type":"text","author_fullname":"t2_cch56","author_is_blocked":false,"author_patreon_flair":false,"author_premium":false,"awarders":[],"banned_at_utc":null,"banned_by":null,"body":">Photosynthesis doesn't create matter from energy. \n\nThat's exactly what it does. It creates matter from photons. The formula applies to chemical reactions too, not just nuclear reactions. It's just easy to be tricked because of the scales involved. The chemical \"conservation of mass\" law is an approximation, not an actual law of nature.\n\nThink about it this way. There is a mass-energy equivalence (in a resting frame), which implies that the energy of a particle is equal to it's mass (times a factor related to the speed of light). So if a system of particles suddenly releases energy, such as the heat and light released by burning plant matter, then that must mean that the total mass of the system has decreased. Otherwise, we would break mass-energy equivalence.\n\nI will quote from [Britannica](https://www.britannica.com/science/E-mc2-equation):\n\n>The mass-energy relation, moreover, implies that, if energy is released from the body as a result of such a conversion, then the rest mass of the body will decrease. Such a conversion of rest energy to other forms of energy occurs in ordinary chemical reactions, but much larger conversions occur in nuclear reactions.","body_html":"<div class=\"md\"><blockquote>\n<p>Photosynthesis doesn't create matter from energy. </p>\n</blockquote>\n\n<p>That's exactly what it does. It creates matter from photons. The formula applies to chemical reactions too, not just nuclear reactions. It's just easy to be tricked because of the scales involved. The chemical "conservation of mass" law is an approximation, not an actual law of nature.</p>\n\n<p>Think about it this way. There is a mass-energy equivalence (in a resting frame), which implies that the energy of a particle is equal to it's mass (times a factor related to the speed of light). So if a system of particles suddenly releases energy, such as the heat and light released by burning plant matter, then that must mean that the total mass of the system has decreased. Otherwise, we would break mass-energy equivalence.</p>\n\n<p>I will quote from <a href=\"https://www.britannica.com/science/E-mc2-equation\">Britannica</a>:</p>\n\n<blockquote>\n<p>The mass-energy relation, moreover, implies that, if energy is released from the body as a result of such a conversion, then the rest mass of the body will decrease. Such a conversion of rest energy to other forms of energy occurs in ordinary chemical reactions, but much larger conversions occur in nuclear reactions.</p>\n</blockquote>\n</div>","can_gild":false,"can_mod_post":false,"collapsed":false,"collapsed_because_crowd_control":null,"collapsed_reason":null,"collapsed_reason_code":null,"comment_type":null,"controversiality":0,"created":1745240269.0,"created_utc":1745240269.0,"distinguished":null,"downs":0,"edited":false,"gilded":0,"gildings":{},"id":"mo8zwcc","is_submitter":false,"likes":null,"link_id":"t3_1k3uj20","locked":false,"mod_note":null,"mod_reason_by":null,"mod_reason_title":null,"mod_reports":[],"name":"t1_mo8zwcc","no_follow":true,"num_reports":null,"parent_id":"t1_mo8um2x","permalink":"/r/askscience/comments/1k3uj20/can_we_make_matter_from_energy/mo8zwcc/","removal_reason":null,"replies":"","report_reasons":null,"saved":false,"score":1,"score_hidden":true,"send_replies":true,"stickied":false,"subreddit":"askscience","subreddit_id":"t5_2qm4e","subreddit_name_prefixed":"r/askscience","subreddit_type":"public","top_awarded_type":null,"total_awards_received":0,"treatment_tags":[],"unrepliable_reason":null,"ups":1,"user_reports":[]},{"all_awardings":[],"approved_at_utc":null,"approved_by":null,"archived":false,"associated_award":null,"author":"os2mac","author_flair_background_color":null,"author_flair_css_class":null,"author_flair_richtext":[],"author_flair_template_id":null,"author_flair_text":null,"author_flair_text_color":null,"author_flair_type":"text","author_fullname":"t2_3stm3","author_is_blocked":false,"author_patreon_flair":false,"author_premium":true,"awarders":[],"banned_at_utc":null,"banned_by":null,"body":"I see a lot of comments about the science of creating, purifying, storing and using Hydrogen fuel cells. But not alot talk about why electric cars vs HFC powered cars... the simplest answer is economics of scale and development cost. When the green movement started taking hold we were closer to having Electric vehicles developed to mass produce than we were creating the safe storage and infrastructure needed to support HFCs. So the quickest route to change away from oil was to do electric first, then continue to develop and improve HFCs and the infrastructure that would be needed to support them.","body_html":"<div class=\"md\"><p>I see a lot of comments about the science of creating, purifying, storing and using Hydrogen fuel cells. But not alot talk about why electric cars vs HFC powered cars... the simplest answer is economics of scale and development cost. When the green movement started taking hold we were closer to having Electric vehicles developed to mass produce than we were creating the safe storage and infrastructure needed to support HFCs. So the quickest route to change away from oil was to do electric first, then continue to develop and improve HFCs and the infrastructure that would be needed to support them.</p>\n</div>","can_gild":false,"can_mod_post":false,"collapsed":false,"collapsed_because_crowd_control":null,"collapsed_reason":null,"collapsed_reason_code":null,"comment_type":null,"controversiality":0,"created":1745223706.0,"created_utc":1745223706.0,"distinguished":null,"downs":0,"edited":false,"gilded":0,"gildings":{},"id":"mo843d9","is_submitter":false,"likes":null,"link_id":"t3_1jttw8j","locked":false,"mod_note":null,"mod_reason_by":null,"mod_reason_title":null,"mod_reports":[],"name":"t1_mo843d9","no_follow":true,"num_reports":null,"parent_id":"t3_1jttw8j","permalink":"/r/askscience/comments/1jttw8j/why_arent_hydrogen_fuel_cell_cars_a_bigger_thing/mo843d9/","removal_reason":null,"replies":"","report_reasons":null,"saved":false,"score":1,"score_hidden":true,"send_replies":true,"stickied":false,"subreddit":"askscience","subreddit_id":"t5_2qm4e","subreddit_name_prefixed":"r/askscience","subreddit_type":"public","top_awarded_type":null,"total_awards_received":0,"treatment_tags":[],"unrepliable_reason":null,"ups":1,"user_reports":[]},{"all_awardings":[],"approved_at_utc":null,"approved_by":null,"archived":false,"associated_award":null,"author":"Mach5Driver","author_flair_background_color":null,"author_flair_css_class":null,"author_flair_richtext":[],"author_flair_template_id":null,"author_flair_text":null,"author_flair_text_color":null,"author_flair_type":"text","author_fullname":"t2_15l2cdwlyi","author_is_blocked":false,"author_patreon_flair":false,"author_premium":false,"awarders":[],"banned_at_utc":null,"banned_by":null,"body":"that's not what I asked for. he disagreed with the prevailing theory. just because he coined a derisive phrase, which was hijacked by the proponents of the theory DOES NOT MEAN that mainstream astrophysicists do not believe that every ounce of matter of energy and matter in the universe did not start out as a singularity that exploded into our reality. they do.\n\nI don't know how the universe began and I don't have a competing theory, but I'm fairly certain that the BBT makes no sense whatsoever, and it will be disproven in the future. Hoyle sounds like a wackadoo who proposed ideas in the 50s and 60s that were accepted because there was no competing science to disprove.","body_html":"<div class=\"md\"><p>that's not what I asked for. he disagreed with the prevailing theory. just because he coined a derisive phrase, which was hijacked by the proponents of the theory DOES NOT MEAN that mainstream astrophysicists do not believe that every ounce of matter of energy and matter in the universe did not start out as a singularity that exploded into our reality. they do.</p>\n\n<p>I don't know how the universe began and I don't have a competing theory, but I'm fairly certain that the BBT makes no sense whatsoever, and it will be disproven in the future. Hoyle sounds like a wackadoo who proposed ideas in the 50s and 60s that were accepted because there was no competing science to disprove.</p>\n</div>","can_gild":false,"can_mod_post":false,"collapsed":false,"collapsed_because_crowd_control":null,"collapsed_reason":null,"collapsed_reason_code":null,"comment_type":null,"controversiality":0,"created":1745179964.0,"created_utc":1745179964.0,"distinguished":null,"downs":0,"edited":false,"gilded":0,"gildings":{},"id":"mo57y24","is_submitter":false,"likes":null,"link_id":"t3_1k2qf20","locked":false,"mod_note":null,"mod_reason_by":null,"mod_reason_title":null,"mod_reports":[],"name":"t1_mo57y24","no_follow":true,"num_reports":null,"parent_id":"t1_mo55kp3","permalink":"/r/askscience/comments/1k2qf20/does_empty_space_exist_outside_of_the_universe/mo57y24/","removal_reason":null,"replies":"","report_reasons":null,"saved":false,"score":1,"score_hidden":true,"send_replies":true,"stickied":false,"subreddit":"askscience","subreddit_id":"t5_2qm4e","subreddit_name_prefixed":"r/askscience","subreddit_type":"public","top_awarded_type":null,"total_awards_received":0,"treatment_tags":[],"unrepliable_reason":null,"ups":1,"user_reports":[]},{"all_awardings":[],"approved_at_utc":null,"approved_by":null,"archived":false,"associated_award":null,"author":"Mach5Driver","author_flair_background_color":null,"author_flair_css_class":null,"author_flair_richtext":[],"author_flair_template_id":null,"author_flair_text":null,"author_flair_text_color":null,"author_flair_type":"text","author_fullname":"t2_15l2cdwlyi","author_is_blocked":false,"author_patreon_flair":false,"author_premium":false,"awarders":[],"banned_at_utc":null,"banned_by":null,"body":"I watch science shows all the time and they use BBT and highly regarded astrophysicists state quite literally that there was a singularity that exploded, spreading all mass and energy in our universe.\n\nI'm going to have to ask you for a video of an astrophysicist who says the BBT is a misnomer and there was, in actuality, no big bang.","body_html":"<div class=\"md\"><p>I watch science shows all the time and they use BBT and highly regarded astrophysicists state quite literally that there was a singularity that exploded, spreading all mass and energy in our universe.</p>\n\n<p>I'm going to have to ask you for a video of an astrophysicist who says the BBT is a misnomer and there was, in actuality, no big bang.</p>\n</div>","can_gild":false,"can_mod_post":false,"collapsed":false,"collapsed_because_crowd_control":null,"collapsed_reason":null,"collapsed_reason_code":null,"comment_type":null,"controversiality":0,"created":1745178581.0,"created_utc":1745178581.0,"distinguished":null,"downs":0,"edited":false,"gilded":0,"gildings":{},"id":"mo53seh","is_submitter":false,"likes":null,"link_id":"t3_1k2qf20","locked":false,"mod_note":null,"mod_reason_by":null,"mod_reason_title":null,"mod_reports":[],"name":"t1_mo53seh","no_follow":true,"num_reports":null,"parent_id":"t1_mo4hfxx","permalink":"/r/askscience/comments/1k2qf20/does_empty_space_exist_outside_of_the_universe/mo53seh/","removal_reason":null,"replies":"","report_reasons":null,"saved":false,"score":1,"score_hidden":true,"send_replies":true,"stickied":false,"subreddit":"askscience","subreddit_id":"t5_2qm4e","subreddit_name_prefixed":"r/askscience","subreddit_type":"public","top_awarded_type":null,"total_awards_received":0,"treatment_tags":[],"unrepliable_reason":null,"ups":1,"user_reports":[]},{"all_awardings":[],"approved_at_utc":null,"approved_by":null,"archived":false,"associated_award":null,"author":"DrStalker","author_flair_background_color":null,"author_flair_css_class":null,"author_flair_richtext":[],"author_flair_template_id":null,"author_flair_text":null,"author_flair_text_color":null,"author_flair_type":"text","author_fullname":"t2_75yal","author_is_blocked":false,"author_patreon_flair":false,"author_premium":false,"awarders":[],"banned_at_utc":null,"banned_by":null,"body":"\nTypical media sensationalist headline, but: [Chimpanzees can 'cook' and prefer cooked food \u2013 study](https://www.theguardian.com/science/2015/jun/03/chimpanzees-can-cook-and-prefer-cooked-food-study-shows)\n\nWhat the study actually shows is chimpanzees can accept delayed gratification where putting raw food into a machine returns cooked food a while later, and they can horde raw food to \"cook\" when the machine is only available sometimes.\n\nSo it's a bit tangential to what you're asking, but suggests chimpanzees have the potential to learn to cook food... however they're not doing it yet.","body_html":"<div class=\"md\"><p>Typical media sensationalist headline, but: <a href=\"https://www.theguardian.com/science/2015/jun/03/chimpanzees-can-cook-and-prefer-cooked-food-study-shows\">Chimpanzees can 'cook' and prefer cooked food \u2013 study</a></p>\n\n<p>What the study actually shows is chimpanzees can accept delayed gratification where putting raw food into a machine returns cooked food a while later, and they can horde raw food to "cook" when the machine is only available sometimes.</p>\n\n<p>So it's a bit tangential to what you're asking, but suggests chimpanzees have the potential to learn to cook food... however they're not doing it yet.</p>\n</div>","can_gild":false,"can_mod_post":false,"collapsed":false,"collapsed_because_crowd_control":null,"collapsed_reason":null,"collapsed_reason_code":null,"comment_type":null,"controversiality":0,"created":1745165057.0,"created_utc":1745165057.0,"distinguished":null,"downs":0,"edited":false,"gilded":0,"gildings":{},"id":"mo3xkug","is_submitter":false,"likes":null,"link_id":"t3_1k30w0j","locked":false,"mod_note":null,"mod_reason_by":null,"mod_reason_title":null,"mod_reports":[],"name":"t1_mo3xkug","no_follow":true,"num_reports":null,"parent_id":"t3_1k30w0j","permalink":"/r/askscience/comments/1k30w0j/are_therehave_their_been_any_other_species_that/mo3xkug/","removal_reason":null,"replies":"","report_reasons":null,"saved":false,"score":1,"score_hidden":true,"send_replies":true,"stickied":false,"subreddit":"askscience","subreddit_id":"t5_2qm4e","subreddit_name_prefixed":"r/askscience","subreddit_type":"public","top_awarded_type":null,"total_awards_received":0,"treatment_tags":[],"unrepliable_reason":null,"ups":1,"user_reports":[]},{"all_awardings":[],"approved_at_utc":null,"approved_by":null,"archived":false,"associated_award":null,"author":"Isopbc","author_flair_background_color":null,"author_flair_css_class":null,"author_flair_richtext":[],"author_flair_template_id":null,"author_flair_text":null,"author_flair_text_color":null,"author_flair_type":"text","author_fullname":"t2_66psi","author_is_blocked":false,"author_patreon_flair":false,"author_premium":false,"awarders":[],"banned_at_utc":null,"banned_by":null,"body":"That was a fun video from Kurgesagt, they do great stuff.\n\nThe stuff covered there is mostly science philosophy though, as they explained well. If you\u2019re interested in another option for where the universe is, there are some pretty unusual findings that suggest we\u2019re in a computer simulation of a universe. \n\nIt\u2019s well discussed in another Asimov debate,[here\u2019s the full show](https://youtu.be/wgSZA3NPpBs?si=yO76rMrOl2pg-bKO), but the most interesting stuff has been clipped [here.](https://youtu.be/tK7aDr-HgPA?si=ko8SHu5ZQewUcWKq) \n\nAll of these options for the universe don\u2019t really change anything for us. If the universe is spherical and spinning it has a rotation time of not less than 500 billion years, so that won\u2019t change our engineering at all. You saw the scales of the \u201clarger\u201d universe in the Kurzgesagt video, we\u2019ll never be able to measure any of that. If we\u2019re in a simulation we\u2019re still in bound by the rules of the simulation, there\u2019s no Neo who can break the rules.\n\nAnd there\u2019s another option for the question of \u201cwhere is the universe.\u201dit\u2019s called the holographic principle. For some reason, if we take a volume of 3d space (a sphere, for example) we can accurately represent what\u2019s inside that volume by remapping everything to it\u2019s surface area\u2026 essentially turning a 3d volume into a flat map. This \u201cmeans\u201d that our universe is the inward projection of an infinitely distant boundary. It\u2019s so cool. We can derive the equations for gravity using this method with only thermodynamic principles. [Here\u2019s PBS Spacetime\u2019s video on the subject.](https://youtu.be/DoCYY9sa2kU?si=JiZK9P5a-1HbjRlv)\n\nAnd finally, you might be interested to learn where gravity actually comes from. Turns out, time causes gravity. [Here\u2019s the science asylum with their explanation.](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F5PfjsPdBzg)","body_html":"<div class=\"md\"><p>That was a fun video from Kurgesagt, they do great stuff.</p>\n\n<p>The stuff covered there is mostly science philosophy though, as they explained well. If you\u2019re interested in another option for where the universe is, there are some pretty unusual findings that suggest we\u2019re in a computer simulation of a universe. </p>\n\n<p>It\u2019s well discussed in another Asimov debate,<a href=\"https://youtu.be/wgSZA3NPpBs?si=yO76rMrOl2pg-bKO\">here\u2019s the full show</a>, but the most interesting stuff has been clipped <a href=\"https://youtu.be/tK7aDr-HgPA?si=ko8SHu5ZQewUcWKq\">here.</a> </p>\n\n<p>All of these options for the universe don\u2019t really change anything for us. If the universe is spherical and spinning it has a rotation time of not less than 500 billion years, so that won\u2019t change our engineering at all. You saw the scales of the \u201clarger\u201d universe in the Kurzgesagt video, we\u2019ll never be able to measure any of that. If we\u2019re in a simulation we\u2019re still in bound by the rules of the simulation, there\u2019s no Neo who can break the rules.</p>\n\n<p>And there\u2019s another option for the question of \u201cwhere is the universe.\u201dit\u2019s called the holographic principle. For some reason, if we take a volume of 3d space (a sphere, for example) we can accurately represent what\u2019s inside that volume by remapping everything to it\u2019s surface area\u2026 essentially turning a 3d volume into a flat map. This \u201cmeans\u201d that our universe is the inward projection of an infinitely distant boundary. It\u2019s so cool. We can derive the equations for gravity using this method with only thermodynamic principles. <a href=\"https://youtu.be/DoCYY9sa2kU?si=JiZK9P5a-1HbjRlv\">Here\u2019s PBS Spacetime\u2019s video on the subject.</a></p>\n\n<p>And finally, you might be interested to learn where gravity actually comes from. Turns out, time causes gravity. <a href=\"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F5PfjsPdBzg\">Here\u2019s the science asylum with their explanation.</a></p>\n</div>","can_gild":false,"can_mod_post":false,"collapsed":false,"collapsed_because_crowd_control":null,"collapsed_reason":null,"collapsed_reason_code":null,"comment_type":null,"controversiality":0,"created":1745146786.0,"created_utc":1745146786.0,"distinguished":null,"downs":0,"edited":false,"gilded":0,"gildings":{},"id":"mo2mljr","is_submitter":false,"likes":null,"link_id":"t3_1k2qf20","locked":false,"mod_note":null,"mod_reason_by":null,"mod_reason_title":null,"mod_reports":[],"name":"t1_mo2mljr","no_follow":true,"num_reports":null,"parent_id":"t1_mo175nl","permalink":"/r/askscience/comments/1k2qf20/does_empty_space_exist_outside_of_the_universe/mo2mljr/","removal_reason":null,"replies":"","report_reasons":null,"saved":false,"score":1,"score_hidden":true,"send_replies":true,"stickied":false,"subreddit":"askscience","subreddit_id":"t5_2qm4e","subreddit_name_prefixed":"r/askscience","subreddit_type":"public","top_awarded_type":null,"total_awards_received":0,"treatment_tags":[],"unrepliable_reason":null,"ups":1,"user_reports":[]},{"all_awardings":[],"approved_at_utc":null,"approved_by":null,"archived":false,"associated_award":null,"author":"sciguy52","author_flair_background_color":null,"author_flair_css_class":null,"author_flair_richtext":[],"author_flair_template_id":null,"author_flair_text":null,"author_flair_text_color":null,"author_flair_type":"text","author_fullname":"t2_13wn69","author_is_blocked":false,"author_patreon_flair":false,"author_premium":false,"awarders":[],"banned_at_utc":null,"banned_by":null,"body":"Keep in mind when talking about just the observable universe vs. the whole universe. Since we cannot observe the unobservable universe we are usually talking about the part we can potentially see, that is the observable universe. That part of the universe was smaller in the past. Infinitely dense and infinitely small is not appreciating what exactly those infinities mean. Those infinites mean the theories we currently have break down and we need a new theory to describe that part. Instead people who don't know physics, or do but present it as popular science, meaning not always accurate, like on Youtube they do not address this correctly. We don't know how small the singularity was for the observable part of the universe. The theories we have don't work to describe it and they are not saying it was infinitely small, the infinities are saying this theory does not work in this early period, and that is it.  In fact, based on whatever new theory like quantum gravity  comes along it may well say using dimensions of size like that might not make sense.  But until we have a theory that describes it you would be better to describe it as we don't know its size. \n\n As far as the observable universe we can only extrapolate back to a time after the singularity, and this  size ranges from maybe a square meter to the size of a small city, beyond that you cannot extrapolate further. And this is the unversed after the singularity but very early. We assume the rest of the universe was a singularity as well. If the universe is infinite now, it was infinite during the singularity too. Our observable part of the greater whole was a lot smaller, but that is only a part of the whole universe.","body_html":"<div class=\"md\"><p>Keep in mind when talking about just the observable universe vs. the whole universe. Since we cannot observe the unobservable universe we are usually talking about the part we can potentially see, that is the observable universe. That part of the universe was smaller in the past. Infinitely dense and infinitely small is not appreciating what exactly those infinities mean. Those infinites mean the theories we currently have break down and we need a new theory to describe that part. Instead people who don't know physics, or do but present it as popular science, meaning not always accurate, like on Youtube they do not address this correctly. We don't know how small the singularity was for the observable part of the universe. The theories we have don't work to describe it and they are not saying it was infinitely small, the infinities are saying this theory does not work in this early period, and that is it.  In fact, based on whatever new theory like quantum gravity  comes along it may well say using dimensions of size like that might not make sense.  But until we have a theory that describes it you would be better to describe it as we don't know its size. </p>\n\n<p>As far as the observable universe we can only extrapolate back to a time after the singularity, and this  size ranges from maybe a square meter to the size of a small city, beyond that you cannot extrapolate further. And this is the unversed after the singularity but very early. We assume the rest of the universe was a singularity as well. If the universe is infinite now, it was infinite during the singularity too. Our observable part of the greater whole was a lot smaller, but that is only a part of the whole universe.</p>\n</div>","can_gild":false,"can_mod_post":false,"collapsed":false,"collapsed_because_crowd_control":null,"collapsed_reason":null,"collapsed_reason_code":null,"comment_type":null,"controversiality":0,"created":1745122991.0,"created_utc":1745122991.0,"distinguished":null,"downs":0,"edited":false,"gilded":0,"gildings":{},"id":"mo1j1mc","is_submitter":false,"likes":null,"link_id":"t3_1k2qf20","locked":false,"mod_note":null,"mod_reason_by":null,"mod_reason_title":null,"mod_reports":[],"name":"t1_mo1j1mc","no_follow":true,"num_reports":null,"parent_id":"t1_mny3mns","permalink":"/r/askscience/comments/1k2qf20/does_empty_space_exist_outside_of_the_universe/mo1j1mc/","removal_reason":null,"replies":"","report_reasons":null,"saved":false,"score":1,"score_hidden":true,"send_replies":true,"stickied":false,"subreddit":"askscience","subreddit_id":"t5_2qm4e","subreddit_name_prefixed":"r/askscience","subreddit_type":"public","top_awarded_type":null,"total_awards_received":0,"treatment_tags":[],"unrepliable_reason":null,"ups":1,"user_reports":[]},{"all_awardings":[],"approved_at_utc":null,"approved_by":null,"archived":false,"associated_award":null,"author":"OverJohn","author_flair_background_color":null,"author_flair_css_class":null,"author_flair_richtext":[],"author_flair_template_id":null,"author_flair_text":null,"author_flair_text_color":null,"author_flair_type":"text","author_fullname":"t2_6wf7gxht","author_is_blocked":false,"author_patreon_flair":false,"author_premium":false,"awarders":[],"banned_at_utc":null,"banned_by":null,"body":"I don't think it's worth getting into semantics. \"inflationary spacetime\" and \"multiverse\" are terms used in this context. I think to keep the question about science, it is better to assume that someone who is asking if it is possible there is anything outside the universe is employing a definition of universe that doesn't mean \"everything that exists\".","body_html":"<div class=\"md\"><p>I don't think it's worth getting into semantics. "inflationary spacetime" and "multiverse" are terms used in this context. I think to keep the question about science, it is better to assume that someone who is asking if it is possible there is anything outside the universe is employing a definition of universe that doesn't mean "everything that exists".</p>\n</div>","can_gild":false,"can_mod_post":false,"collapsed":false,"collapsed_because_crowd_control":null,"collapsed_reason":null,"collapsed_reason_code":null,"comment_type":null,"controversiality":0,"created":1745092310.0,"created_utc":1745092310.0,"distinguished":null,"downs":0,"edited":false,"gilded":0,"gildings":{},"id":"mnz897k","is_submitter":false,"likes":null,"link_id":"t3_1k2qf20","locked":false,"mod_note":null,"mod_reason_by":null,"mod_reason_title":null,"mod_reports":[],"name":"t1_mnz897k","no_follow":true,"num_reports":null,"parent_id":"t1_mnz76vk","permalink":"/r/askscience/comments/1k2qf20/does_empty_space_exist_outside_of_the_universe/mnz897k/","removal_reason":null,"replies":"","report_reasons":null,"saved":false,"score":1,"score_hidden":true,"send_replies":true,"stickied":false,"subreddit":"askscience","subreddit_id":"t5_2qm4e","subreddit_name_prefixed":"r/askscience","subreddit_type":"public","top_awarded_type":null,"total_awards_received":0,"treatment_tags":[],"unrepliable_reason":null,"ups":1,"user_reports":[]},{"all_awardings":[],"approved_at_utc":null,"approved_by":null,"archived":false,"associated_award":null,"author":"ArrowsOfFate","author_flair_background_color":null,"author_flair_css_class":null,"author_flair_richtext":[],"author_flair_template_id":null,"author_flair_text":null,"author_flair_text_color":null,"author_flair_type":"text","author_fullname":"t2_5gfagd9p","author_is_blocked":false,"author_patreon_flair":false,"author_premium":false,"awarders":[],"banned_at_utc":null,"banned_by":null,"body":"I like to think the universe is one of many, but of course there\u2019s no scientific proof for that, just a lot of people sharing the view. If one universe can occur via big bang, another could. As far as what the space beyond the universe is, I think it\u2019s dark energy, which is what\u2019s expanding our universe. As to what dark energy is, we don\u2019t know. It\u2019s undetectable by any man made devices sofar.\n\nI view the universe as a drop of water in a vast ocean, with new water (big bangs) happening quite often, similar to how oxygen and hydrogen reacting creates new water droplets. \n\nIn some ways, in each animal and person is a universe. Trillions upon trillions of different beings that make up every cell. 300 times more \u201calien\u201d genomes than human. \n\nhttps://www.amnh.org/explore/science-topics/microbiome-health/meet-your-microbiome#:~:text=An%20estimated%2030%20trillion%20cells,90%25%20are%20bacterial%20and%20fungal.&text=Ninety%2Dnine%20percent%20of%20the,about%20one%20percent%20is%20human.","body_html":"<div class=\"md\"><p>I like to think the universe is one of many, but of course there\u2019s no scientific proof for that, just a lot of people sharing the view. If one universe can occur via big bang, another could. As far as what the space beyond the universe is, I think it\u2019s dark energy, which is what\u2019s expanding our universe. As to what dark energy is, we don\u2019t know. It\u2019s undetectable by any man made devices sofar.</p>\n\n<p>I view the universe as a drop of water in a vast ocean, with new water (big bangs) happening quite often, similar to how oxygen and hydrogen reacting creates new water droplets. </p>\n\n<p>In some ways, in each animal and person is a universe. Trillions upon trillions of different beings that make up every cell. 300 times more \u201calien\u201d genomes than human. </p>\n\n<p><a href=\"https://www.amnh.org/explore/science-topics/microbiome-health/meet-your-microbiome#:%7E:text=An%20estimated%2030%20trillion%20cells,90%25%20are%20bacterial%20and%20fungal.&text=Ninety%2Dnine%20percent%20of%20the,about%20one%20percent%20is%20human\">https://www.amnh.org/explore/science-topics/microbiome-health/meet-your-microbiome#:~:text=An%20estimated%2030%20trillion%20cells,90%25%20are%20bacterial%20and%20fungal.&text=Ninety%2Dnine%20percent%20of%20the,about%20one%20percent%20is%20human</a>.</p>\n</div>","can_gild":false,"can_mod_post":false,"collapsed":false,"collapsed_because_crowd_control":null,"collapsed_reason":null,"collapsed_reason_code":null,"comment_type":null,"controversiality":0,"created":1745087395.0,"created_utc":1745087395.0,"distinguished":null,"downs":0,"edited":false,"gilded":0,"gildings":{},"id":"mnythox","is_submitter":false,"likes":null,"link_id":"t3_1k2qf20","locked":false,"mod_note":null,"mod_reason_by":null,"mod_reason_title":null,"mod_reports":[],"name":"t1_mnythox","no_follow":true,"num_reports":null,"parent_id":"t1_mnynrss","permalink":"/r/askscience/comments/1k2qf20/does_empty_space_exist_outside_of_the_universe/mnythox/","removal_reason":null,"replies":"","report_reasons":null,"saved":false,"score":1,"score_hidden":true,"send_replies":true,"stickied":false,"subreddit":"askscience","subreddit_id":"t5_2qm4e","subreddit_name_prefixed":"r/askscience","subreddit_type":"public","top_awarded_type":null,"total_awards_received":0,"treatment_tags":[],"unrepliable_reason":null,"ups":1,"user_reports":[]},{"all_awardings":[],"approved_at_utc":null,"approved_by":null,"archived":false,"associated_award":null,"author":"ArrowsOfFate","author_flair_background_color":null,"author_flair_css_class":null,"author_flair_richtext":[],"author_flair_template_id":null,"author_flair_text":null,"author_flair_text_color":null,"author_flair_type":"text","author_fullname":"t2_5gfagd9p","author_is_blocked":false,"author_patreon_flair":false,"author_premium":false,"awarders":[],"banned_at_utc":null,"banned_by":null,"body":"I saw it; but you were still saying that things are infinitely dense, when that is an acknowledged, even by you; incorrect solution. \n\nSingularities should just be listed as a variable density that\u2019s currently unknown, like X. Why?\n\nInfinity is confusing for a lot of people and gives them the absolutely wrong ideal, of  something that will take millenia further to begin to understand. \n\nPeoples incorrect ideals can and have actively harmed science.","body_html":"<div class=\"md\"><p>I saw it; but you were still saying that things are infinitely dense, when that is an acknowledged, even by you; incorrect solution. </p>\n\n<p>Singularities should just be listed as a variable density that\u2019s currently unknown, like X. Why?</p>\n\n<p>Infinity is confusing for a lot of people and gives them the absolutely wrong ideal, of  something that will take millenia further to begin to understand. </p>\n\n<p>Peoples incorrect ideals can and have actively harmed science.</p>\n</div>","can_gild":false,"can_mod_post":false,"collapsed":false,"collapsed_because_crowd_control":null,"collapsed_reason":null,"collapsed_reason_code":null,"comment_type":null,"controversiality":0,"created":1745084153.0,"created_utc":1745084153.0,"distinguished":null,"downs":0,"edited":false,"gilded":0,"gildings":{},"id":"mnyj12j","is_submitter":false,"likes":null,"link_id":"t3_1k2qf20","locked":false,"mod_note":null,"mod_reason_by":null,"mod_reason_title":null,"mod_reports":[],"name":"t1_mnyj12j","no_follow":true,"num_reports":null,"parent_id":"t1_mnyggjv","permalink":"/r/askscience/comments/1k2qf20/does_empty_space_exist_outside_of_the_universe/mnyj12j/","removal_reason":null,"replies":"","report_reasons":null,"saved":false,"score":1,"score_hidden":true,"send_replies":true,"stickied":false,"subreddit":"askscience","subreddit_id":"t5_2qm4e","subreddit_name_prefixed":"r/askscience","subreddit_type":"public","top_awarded_type":null,"total_awards_received":0,"treatment_tags":[],"unrepliable_reason":null,"ups":1,"user_reports":[]},{"all_awardings":[],"approved_at_utc":null,"approved_by":null,"archived":false,"associated_award":null,"author":"ArrowsOfFate","author_flair_background_color":null,"author_flair_css_class":null,"author_flair_richtext":[],"author_flair_template_id":null,"author_flair_text":null,"author_flair_text_color":null,"author_flair_type":"text","author_fullname":"t2_5gfagd9p","author_is_blocked":false,"author_patreon_flair":false,"author_premium":false,"awarders":[],"banned_at_utc":null,"banned_by":null,"body":"That is just a theory, so let\u2019s stop treating it like scientific fact. \n\nNothing is truly infinite. \n\nThings can only appear infinite because we don\u2019t have calculations to accurately calculate them. \n\nA black hole isn\u2019t infinitely dense either. Each black hole has a specific mass that affects entire galaxies, and also lose out on their insanely dense masses over time via hawking radiation.\n\nSome things are just unknown to science, so calling them infinitely dense is a way for science to act like it knows more than it does.","body_html":"<div class=\"md\"><p>That is just a theory, so let\u2019s stop treating it like scientific fact. </p>\n\n<p>Nothing is truly infinite. </p>\n\n<p>Things can only appear infinite because we don\u2019t have calculations to accurately calculate them. </p>\n\n<p>A black hole isn\u2019t infinitely dense either. Each black hole has a specific mass that affects entire galaxies, and also lose out on their insanely dense masses over time via hawking radiation.</p>\n\n<p>Some things are just unknown to science, so calling them infinitely dense is a way for science to act like it knows more than it does.</p>\n</div>","can_gild":false,"can_mod_post":false,"collapsed":false,"collapsed_because_crowd_control":null,"collapsed_reason":null,"collapsed_reason_code":null,"comment_type":null,"controversiality":0,"created":1745082474.0,"created_utc":1745082474.0,"distinguished":null,"downs":0,"edited":false,"gilded":0,"gildings":{},"id":"mnydmt5","is_submitter":false,"likes":null,"link_id":"t3_1k2qf20","locked":false,"mod_note":null,"mod_reason_by":null,"mod_reason_title":null,"mod_reports":[],"name":"t1_mnydmt5","no_follow":true,"num_reports":null,"parent_id":"t1_mnyblw5","permalink":"/r/askscience/comments/1k2qf20/does_empty_space_exist_outside_of_the_universe/mnydmt5/","removal_reason":null,"replies":"","report_reasons":null,"saved":false,"score":1,"score_hidden":true,"send_replies":true,"stickied":false,"subreddit":"askscience","subreddit_id":"t5_2qm4e","subreddit_name_prefixed":"r/askscience","subreddit_type":"public","top_awarded_type":null,"total_awards_received":0,"treatment_tags":[],"unrepliable_reason":null,"ups":1,"user_reports":[]},{"all_awardings":[],"approved_at_utc":null,"approved_by":null,"archived":false,"associated_award":null,"author":"3rdbasemonkey","author_flair_background_color":null,"author_flair_css_class":null,"author_flair_richtext":[],"author_flair_template_id":null,"author_flair_text":null,"author_flair_text_color":null,"author_flair_type":"text","author_fullname":"t2_l3h6s","author_is_blocked":false,"author_patreon_flair":false,"author_premium":false,"awarders":[],"banned_at_utc":null,"banned_by":null,"body":"As someone else said there good evidence in the similarities shared by all living things that life is descended from a LUCA. It\u2019s not irrational but a theory with supporting evidence. \n\nBut you\u2019re right that it\u2019s A theory and other theories may be plausible or possible. The reason we \u201cbelieve\u201d in a LUCA is that evidence of multiple sources of life, especially ones that are different from each other, has never been found. So while we can think of many possibilities and even use statistics to suggest there SHOULD be other forms of life, e.g. in space, we simply haven\u2019t found evidence to convince us that that is the case. Currently the LUCA theory is simply the most believable and simple (which often but not always gives it more credence). Scepticism like yours is good though - you\u2019re very right that a process that spawned one LUCA would most likely have been able to spawn more.\n\nI think this touches on population genetics processes though. Even if there were many LUCAs at the same time from independent sources, statistically speaking, vertical descent (reproduction to today\u2019s time) almost always ends up killing off all but one lineage, given enough time. We know this because we see evidence of it in population genetic studies. So it\u2019s likely (but not proven!) that our LUCA was just \u201clucky\u201d and is the lineage that survived.\n\nAnyway, my original point was that you\u2019re right that theoretically it\u2019s possible and perhaps likely there were many independent LUCA type organisms. But if we consider available evidence (which isn\u2019t perfect, may change and develop over time, and is not complete or exhaustive), descent from a single ancestor is the current BEST theory. Other theories may exist, but CURRENTLY are not as well supported. \n\nThis is the process of science, and the fact that our understanding changes and may not be perfect over time is fully aligned with this process. Again, maybe there are better ways to do science, but this is our best attempt at it.","body_html":"<div class=\"md\"><p>As someone else said there good evidence in the similarities shared by all living things that life is descended from a LUCA. It\u2019s not irrational but a theory with supporting evidence. </p>\n\n<p>But you\u2019re right that it\u2019s A theory and other theories may be plausible or possible. The reason we \u201cbelieve\u201d in a LUCA is that evidence of multiple sources of life, especially ones that are different from each other, has never been found. So while we can think of many possibilities and even use statistics to suggest there SHOULD be other forms of life, e.g. in space, we simply haven\u2019t found evidence to convince us that that is the case. Currently the LUCA theory is simply the most believable and simple (which often but not always gives it more credence). Scepticism like yours is good though - you\u2019re very right that a process that spawned one LUCA would most likely have been able to spawn more.</p>\n\n<p>I think this touches on population genetics processes though. Even if there were many LUCAs at the same time from independent sources, statistically speaking, vertical descent (reproduction to today\u2019s time) almost always ends up killing off all but one lineage, given enough time. We know this because we see evidence of it in population genetic studies. So it\u2019s likely (but not proven!) that our LUCA was just \u201clucky\u201d and is the lineage that survived.</p>\n\n<p>Anyway, my original point was that you\u2019re right that theoretically it\u2019s possible and perhaps likely there were many independent LUCA type organisms. But if we consider available evidence (which isn\u2019t perfect, may change and develop over time, and is not complete or exhaustive), descent from a single ancestor is the current BEST theory. Other theories may exist, but CURRENTLY are not as well supported. </p>\n\n<p>This is the process of science, and the fact that our understanding changes and may not be perfect over time is fully aligned with this process. Again, maybe there are better ways to do science, but this is our best attempt at it.</p>\n</div>","can_gild":false,"can_mod_post":false,"collapsed":false,"collapsed_because_crowd_control":null,"collapsed_reason":null,"collapsed_reason_code":null,"comment_type":null,"controversiality":0,"created":1745065030.0,"created_utc":1745065030.0,"distinguished":null,"downs":0,"edited":false,"gilded":0,"gildings":{},"id":"mnwz22p","is_submitter":false,"likes":null,"link_id":"t3_1k258xp","locked":false,"mod_note":null,"mod_reason_by":null,"mod_reason_title":null,"mod_reports":[],"name":"t1_mnwz22p","no_follow":true,"num_reports":null,"parent_id":"t1_mnwdv1c","permalink":"/r/askscience/comments/1k258xp/how_do_we_know_that_all_current_life_originated/mnwz22p/","removal_reason":null,"replies":"","report_reasons":null,"saved":false,"score":1,"score_hidden":true,"send_replies":true,"stickied":false,"subreddit":"askscience","subreddit_id":"t5_2qm4e","subreddit_name_prefixed":"r/askscience","subreddit_type":"public","top_awarded_type":null,"total_awards_received":0,"treatment_tags":[],"unrepliable_reason":null,"ups":1,"user_reports":[]},{"all_awardings":[],"approved_at_utc":null,"approved_by":null,"archived":false,"associated_award":null,"author":"Sibula97","author_flair_background_color":null,"author_flair_css_class":null,"author_flair_richtext":[],"author_flair_template_id":null,"author_flair_text":null,"author_flair_text_color":null,"author_flair_type":"text","author_fullname":"t2_2h6vft89","author_is_blocked":false,"author_patreon_flair":false,"author_premium":false,"awarders":[],"banned_at_utc":null,"banned_by":null,"body":"Planets and stars generally spin very slowly compared to their gravitational pull, so they're roughly spherical. Saturn spins quite fast for its size and is not very dense, so it's about 10% \"wider\" than it's \"tall\", but looking at some smaller objects, there's at least the dwarf planet [Haumea](https://science.nasa.gov/dwarf-planets/haumea/).","body_html":"<div class=\"md\"><p>Planets and stars generally spin very slowly compared to their gravitational pull, so they're roughly spherical. Saturn spins quite fast for its size and is not very dense, so it's about 10% "wider" than it's "tall", but looking at some smaller objects, there's at least the dwarf planet <a href=\"https://science.nasa.gov/dwarf-planets/haumea/\">Haumea</a>.</p>\n</div>","can_gild":false,"can_mod_post":false,"collapsed":false,"collapsed_because_crowd_control":null,"collapsed_reason":null,"collapsed_reason_code":null,"comment_type":null,"controversiality":0,"created":1745055424.0,"created_utc":1745055424.0,"distinguished":null,"downs":0,"edited":false,"gilded":0,"gildings":{},"id":"mnwhp0g","is_submitter":false,"likes":null,"link_id":"t3_1k1hmy4","locked":false,"mod_note":null,"mod_reason_by":null,"mod_reason_title":null,"mod_reports":[],"name":"t1_mnwhp0g","no_follow":true,"num_reports":null,"parent_id":"t1_mnuvx0o","permalink":"/r/askscience/comments/1k1hmy4/why_are_galaxies_flat/mnwhp0g/","removal_reason":null,"replies":"","report_reasons":null,"saved":false,"score":1,"score_hidden":true,"send_replies":true,"stickied":false,"subreddit":"askscience","subreddit_id":"t5_2qm4e","subreddit_name_prefixed":"r/askscience","subreddit_type":"public","top_awarded_type":null,"total_awards_received":0,"treatment_tags":[],"unrepliable_reason":null,"ups":1,"user_reports":[]},{"all_awardings":[],"approved_at_utc":null,"approved_by":null,"archived":false,"associated_award":null,"author":"askscience-ModTeam","author_flair_background_color":null,"author_flair_css_class":null,"author_flair_richtext":[],"author_flair_template_id":null,"author_flair_text":null,"author_flair_text_color":null,"author_flair_type":"text","author_fullname":"t2_rpe3jilg","author_is_blocked":false,"author_patreon_flair":false,"author_premium":false,"awarders":[],"banned_at_utc":null,"banned_by":null,"body":"Thank you for your submission! Unfortunately, your submission has been removed for the following reason(s):\n\n* This is a vague question (e.g., the context of this excerpt and its source would be helpful in providing an answer) and likely based on flawed premises. Again, given the lack of context, it's unclear exactly what is being discussed, but it likely reflects an aspect of so-called \"geocenter motion\", which is exceedingly well studied because it is an essential component of accurate GPS measurements (e.g., [1](https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0264370712000087), [2](https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2019JB017443), [3](https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0040195109004855), [4](https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2005JB003784), [5](https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2012JB009196), [6](https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10291-023-01546-x), [7](https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/2016JB013073), and many more).\n\n\n\nIf you disagree with this decision, please send a [message to the moderators.](https://www.reddit.com/message/compose?to=%2Fr%2Faskscience)","body_html":"<div class=\"md\"><p>Thank you for your submission! Unfortunately, your submission has been removed for the following reason(s):</p>\n\n<ul>\n<li>This is a vague question (e.g., the context of this excerpt and its source would be helpful in providing an answer) and likely based on flawed premises. Again, given the lack of context, it's unclear exactly what is being discussed, but it likely reflects an aspect of so-called "geocenter motion", which is exceedingly well studied because it is an essential component of accurate GPS measurements (e.g., <a href=\"https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0264370712000087\">1</a>, <a href=\"https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2019JB017443\">2</a>, <a href=\"https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0040195109004855\">3</a>, <a href=\"https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2005JB003784\">4</a>, <a href=\"https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2012JB009196\">5</a>, <a href=\"https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10291-023-01546-x\">6</a>, <a href=\"https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/2016JB013073\">7</a>, and many more).</li>\n</ul>\n\n<p>If you disagree with this decision, please send a <a href=\"https://www.reddit.com/message/compose?to=%2Fr%2Faskscience\">message to the moderators.</a></p>\n</div>","can_gild":false,"can_mod_post":false,"collapsed":false,"collapsed_because_crowd_control":null,"collapsed_reason":null,"collapsed_reason_code":null,"comment_type":null,"controversiality":0,"created":1744991525.0,"created_utc":1744991525.0,"distinguished":"moderator","downs":0,"edited":false,"gilded":0,"gildings":{},"id":"mnrzlw9","is_submitter":false,"likes":null,"link_id":"t3_1k27rdq","locked":false,"mod_note":null,"mod_reason_by":null,"mod_reason_title":null,"mod_reports":[],"name":"t1_mnrzlw9","no_follow":true,"num_reports":null,"parent_id":"t3_1k27rdq","permalink":"/r/askscience/comments/1k27rdq/what_happened_to_the_planets_core_in_1998_and/mnrzlw9/","removal_reason":null,"replies":"","report_reasons":null,"saved":false,"score":1,"score_hidden":true,"send_replies":true,"stickied":true,"subreddit":"askscience","subreddit_id":"t5_2qm4e","subreddit_name_prefixed":"r/askscience","subreddit_type":"public","top_awarded_type":null,"total_awards_received":0,"treatment_tags":[],"unrepliable_reason":null,"ups":1,"user_reports":[]},{"all_awardings":[],"approved_at_utc":null,"approved_by":null,"archived":false,"associated_award":null,"author":"OlympusMons94","author_flair_background_color":null,"author_flair_css_class":null,"author_flair_richtext":[],"author_flair_template_id":null,"author_flair_text":null,"author_flair_text_color":null,"author_flair_type":"text","author_fullname":"t2_4gpe3ud6","author_is_blocked":false,"author_patreon_flair":false,"author_premium":false,"awarders":[],"banned_at_utc":null,"banned_by":null,"body":"That's now the spectroscopy used to study exoplanets works. It is generally chemical compounds that are identified, not individual elements. Certainly no one is counting atomic abundances in exoplanetary atmospheres and figuring out what molecular formulas may match them.\n\nThere are a few different spectroscopy methods used for studying exoplanets (transmission, reflectance, and thermal emission). The most common, and the relevant one to OP's question, is transmission spectroscopy, which is a subset of [absorption spectroscopy](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absorption_spectroscopy). When an exoplanet transits its star as viewed from the telescope, light from that star passing through the exoplanet's atmosphere is measured and recorded. Different compounds in the atmosphere (e.g., H2O, methane, or CO2) absorb at different wavelenths in the infrared and visible range, producing a dip in the brightness of the light spectrum at those wavelengths. A larger dip indicates a higher abundance.\n\nIn practice, the signals recorded are weak and there is a lot of noise. Combining the spectra from multiple transits increases the signal-to-noise ratio. That is, multiple transits (and so, exoplanets with relatively short orbital periods) are typically required to get a good detection, and more are necessary to increase confidence. Even so, the real spectral signatures are subtle, and there is an art (and a lot of room for uncertainty, and different methods and interpretations) in fitting real spectra to identify particular compounds (c.f., the continuing debate of phosphine in Venus's atmosphere). Also, certain compounds, particularly diatomic gasses like O2 and moreso N2, have very subtle spectral signatures that make them infeasible to detect with current telescopes, and an achievable time frame (i.e., number of transits).\n\nThere are spectroscopic methods that do measure elemental composition specifically, and some of them are applicable to (solar system) planetary science--but not exoplanets. For example, gamma ray spectrometers (usually paired with a neutron spectrometer) on spacecraft such as MESSENGER and Psyche measure elemental composition of the surfaces solar system bodies (with little or no atmosphere) which the spacecraft orbit. Bombardment by cosmic rays causes elements in surface rock to emit gamma rays of certain energies, which can be measured by orbiting spacecraft.\n\n>and in turn, the molecules that those atoms are a part of. Then you (or, nowadays, a computer) does a bunch of math with those peaks to determine \"units\" of molecular composition.\n\nOK, that sounds more like how x-ray fluorescence (XRF) and alpha particle and x-ray spectrometry can be applied to geology/petrology. These are done with a sample *in situ*, as in a lab, or by a lander or rover on another planet. The abundances of elements are measured, and for major elements typically reported in terms of oxides, e.g., magnesium as MgO; aluminum as Al2O3; etc. (Historically, a bunch of wet chemistry was done to chemically separate out major element oxides from rock samples.) With some assumptions and calculations (an excel spreadsheet works), the major element composition can be used to estimate an [idealized mineral composition](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normative_mineralogy) for the rock.","body_html":"<div class=\"md\"><p>That's now the spectroscopy used to study exoplanets works. It is generally chemical compounds that are identified, not individual elements. Certainly no one is counting atomic abundances in exoplanetary atmospheres and figuring out what molecular formulas may match them.</p>\n\n<p>There are a few different spectroscopy methods used for studying exoplanets (transmission, reflectance, and thermal emission). The most common, and the relevant one to OP's question, is transmission spectroscopy, which is a subset of <a href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absorption_spectroscopy\">absorption spectroscopy</a>. When an exoplanet transits its star as viewed from the telescope, light from that star passing through the exoplanet's atmosphere is measured and recorded. Different compounds in the atmosphere (e.g., H2O, methane, or CO2) absorb at different wavelenths in the infrared and visible range, producing a dip in the brightness of the light spectrum at those wavelengths. A larger dip indicates a higher abundance.</p>\n\n<p>In practice, the signals recorded are weak and there is a lot of noise. Combining the spectra from multiple transits increases the signal-to-noise ratio. That is, multiple transits (and so, exoplanets with relatively short orbital periods) are typically required to get a good detection, and more are necessary to increase confidence. Even so, the real spectral signatures are subtle, and there is an art (and a lot of room for uncertainty, and different methods and interpretations) in fitting real spectra to identify particular compounds (c.f., the continuing debate of phosphine in Venus's atmosphere). Also, certain compounds, particularly diatomic gasses like O2 and moreso N2, have very subtle spectral signatures that make them infeasible to detect with current telescopes, and an achievable time frame (i.e., number of transits).</p>\n\n<p>There are spectroscopic methods that do measure elemental composition specifically, and some of them are applicable to (solar system) planetary science--but not exoplanets. For example, gamma ray spectrometers (usually paired with a neutron spectrometer) on spacecraft such as MESSENGER and Psyche measure elemental composition of the surfaces solar system bodies (with little or no atmosphere) which the spacecraft orbit. Bombardment by cosmic rays causes elements in surface rock to emit gamma rays of certain energies, which can be measured by orbiting spacecraft.</p>\n\n<blockquote>\n<p>and in turn, the molecules that those atoms are a part of. Then you (or, nowadays, a computer) does a bunch of math with those peaks to determine "units" of molecular composition.</p>\n</blockquote>\n\n<p>OK, that sounds more like how x-ray fluorescence (XRF) and alpha particle and x-ray spectrometry can be applied to geology/petrology. These are done with a sample <em>in situ</em>, as in a lab, or by a lander or rover on another planet. The abundances of elements are measured, and for major elements typically reported in terms of oxides, e.g., magnesium as MgO; aluminum as Al2O3; etc. (Historically, a bunch of wet chemistry was done to chemically separate out major element oxides from rock samples.) With some assumptions and calculations (an excel spreadsheet works), the major element composition can be used to estimate an <a href=\"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normative_mineralogy\">idealized mineral composition</a> for the rock.</p>\n</div>","can_gild":false,"can_mod_post":false,"collapsed":false,"collapsed_because_crowd_control":null,"collapsed_reason":null,"collapsed_reason_code":null,"comment_type":null,"controversiality":0,"created":1744954063.0,"created_utc":1744954063.0,"distinguished":null,"downs":0,"edited":false,"gilded":0,"gildings":{},"id":"mnppf09","is_submitter":false,"likes":null,"link_id":"t3_1k16aud","locked":false,"mod_note":null,"mod_reason_by":null,"mod_reason_title":null,"mod_reports":[],"name":"t1_mnppf09","no_follow":true,"num_reports":null,"parent_id":"t1_mnks4s4","permalink":"/r/askscience/comments/1k16aud/james_webb_telescope_has_recently_discovered/mnppf09/","removal_reason":null,"replies":"","report_reasons":null,"saved":false,"score":1,"score_hidden":true,"send_replies":true,"stickied":false,"subreddit":"askscience","subreddit_id":"t5_2qm4e","subreddit_name_prefixed":"r/askscience","subreddit_type":"public","top_awarded_type":null,"total_awards_received":0,"treatment_tags":[],"unrepliable_reason":null,"ups":1,"user_reports":[]},{"all_awardings":[],"approved_at_utc":null,"approved_by":null,"archived":false,"associated_award":null,"author":"ElbowSkinCellarWall","author_flair_background_color":null,"author_flair_css_class":null,"author_flair_richtext":[],"author_flair_template_id":null,"author_flair_text":null,"author_flair_text_color":null,"author_flair_type":"text","author_fullname":"t2_pr1txmod","author_is_blocked":false,"author_patreon_flair":false,"author_premium":false,"awarders":[],"banned_at_utc":null,"banned_by":null,"body":"On the other side of the universe they do have a universal reference frame.  We just haven't adopted it yet on our side.  It would make sciencing so much easier.","body_html":"<div class=\"md\"><p>On the other side of the universe they do have a universal reference frame.  We just haven't adopted it yet on our side.  It would make sciencing so much easier.</p>\n</div>","can_gild":false,"can_mod_post":false,"collapsed":false,"collapsed_because_crowd_control":null,"collapsed_reason":null,"collapsed_reason_code":null,"comment_type":null,"controversiality":0,"created":1744940974.0,"created_utc":1744940974.0,"distinguished":null,"downs":0,"edited":false,"gilded":0,"gildings":{},"id":"mnow8d1","is_submitter":false,"likes":null,"link_id":"t3_1k1pf0c","locked":false,"mod_note":null,"mod_reason_by":null,"mod_reason_title":null,"mod_reports":[],"name":"t1_mnow8d1","no_follow":true,"num_reports":null,"parent_id":"t1_mno7zzi","permalink":"/r/askscience/comments/1k1pf0c/how_can_astronomers_tell_a_galaxy_spins/mnow8d1/","removal_reason":null,"replies":"","report_reasons":null,"saved":false,"score":1,"score_hidden":true,"send_replies":true,"stickied":false,"subreddit":"askscience","subreddit_id":"t5_2qm4e","subreddit_name_prefixed":"r/askscience","subreddit_type":"public","top_awarded_type":null,"total_awards_received":0,"treatment_tags":[],"unrepliable_reason":null,"ups":1,"user_reports":[]},{"all_awardings":[],"approved_at_utc":null,"approved_by":null,"archived":false,"associated_award":null,"author":"marklein","author_flair_background_color":null,"author_flair_css_class":null,"author_flair_richtext":[],"author_flair_template_id":null,"author_flair_text":null,"author_flair_text_color":null,"author_flair_type":"text","author_fullname":"t2_kgn1k","author_is_blocked":false,"author_patreon_flair":false,"author_premium":false,"awarders":[],"banned_at_utc":null,"banned_by":null,"body":"AI tells me this:\n\nA binary droplet is a small liquid droplet composed of a mixture of two different fluids or components, rather than a single pure substance. These two components typically have distinct physical properties, such as volatility, surface tension, or miscibility, which can lead to unique behaviors during processes like evaporation, motion, or collision[3][4][5].\n\n## Key Characteristics of Binary Droplets\n\n- **Composition:** Binary droplets are made from two liquids, such as water and ethanol, or isopropanol and 2-butanol[3][4][6].\n- **Evaporation Dynamics:** The two fluids often have different volatilities, causing the more volatile component to evaporate first. This can result in complex evaporation patterns, including changes in droplet shape and surface tension gradients[3][4].\n- **Shape and Behavior:** Unlike pure liquid droplets, binary droplets can exhibit non-standard shapes (e.g., flattened, pancake-like forms) due to Marangoni flows\u2014flows driven by surface tension gradients caused by the uneven evaporation of the components[4].\n- **Applications:** Binary droplets are important in various technologies, including microfluidics, printing, coating, and pattern deposition, because their unique evaporation and motion characteristics can be exploited for precise material handling and deposition[4][5].\n\n## Example: Water-Ethanol Binary Droplet\n\nWhen a droplet is composed of water and ethanol:\n- The ethanol (more volatile) tends to evaporate first, changing the composition of the droplet over time.\n- This changing composition alters the surface tension, leading to internal flows (Marangoni flows) and sometimes causing the droplet to flatten or move in response to external vapor sources[3][4][5].\n- The evaporation process can exhibit multiple stages, each dominated by the evaporation of either the more volatile or less volatile component, and may involve complex behaviors like stick\u2013slip motion at the droplet\u2019s contact line[3].\n\n## Summary Table\n\n| Feature             | Pure Droplet             | Binary Droplet                         |\n|---------------------|-------------------------|----------------------------------------|\n| Composition         | One liquid              | Two liquids (e.g., water + ethanol)    |\n| Evaporation         | Uniform, predictable    | Multi-stage, complex                   |\n| Surface Tension     | Constant                | Varies due to composition changes      |\n| Shape During Life   | Spherical cap           | Can flatten, form pancake-like shapes  |\n| Internal Flows      | Minimal                 | Marangoni flows common                 |\n| Applications        | Limited                 | Advanced (printing, microfluidics, etc)|\n\nIn summary, a binary droplet is a two-component liquid droplet whose behavior\u2014especially during evaporation or under external influences\u2014is governed by the interplay between the different physical properties of its constituent fluids[3][4][5].\n\nCitations:\n[1] https://fyfluiddynamics.com/2025/01/the-mystery-of-the-binary-droplet/\n[2] https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/096016869290057R\n[3] https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.langmuir.3c00914\n[4] https://link.aps.org/doi/10.1103/PhysRevLett.127.024501\n[5] https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7556999/\n[6] https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/14/11/4459\n[7] https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0009250923010667\n[8] https://aiche.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/aic.18667?af=R\n\n---\nAnswer from Perplexity: pplx.ai/share","body_html":"<div class=\"md\"><p>AI tells me this:</p>\n\n<p>A binary droplet is a small liquid droplet composed of a mixture of two different fluids or components, rather than a single pure substance. These two components typically have distinct physical properties, such as volatility, surface tension, or miscibility, which can lead to unique behaviors during processes like evaporation, motion, or collision[3][4][5].</p>\n\n<h2>Key Characteristics of Binary Droplets</h2>\n\n<ul>\n<li><strong>Composition:</strong> Binary droplets are made from two liquids, such as water and ethanol, or isopropanol and 2-butanol[3][4][6].</li>\n<li><strong>Evaporation Dynamics:</strong> The two fluids often have different volatilities, causing the more volatile component to evaporate first. This can result in complex evaporation patterns, including changes in droplet shape and surface tension gradients[3][4].</li>\n<li><strong>Shape and Behavior:</strong> Unlike pure liquid droplets, binary droplets can exhibit non-standard shapes (e.g., flattened, pancake-like forms) due to Marangoni flows\u2014flows driven by surface tension gradients caused by the uneven evaporation of the components[4].</li>\n<li><strong>Applications:</strong> Binary droplets are important in various technologies, including microfluidics, printing, coating, and pattern deposition, because their unique evaporation and motion characteristics can be exploited for precise material handling and deposition[4][5].</li>\n</ul>\n\n<h2>Example: Water-Ethanol Binary Droplet</h2>\n\n<p>When a droplet is composed of water and ethanol:\n- The ethanol (more volatile) tends to evaporate first, changing the composition of the droplet over time.\n- This changing composition alters the surface tension, leading to internal flows (Marangoni flows) and sometimes causing the droplet to flatten or move in response to external vapor sources[3][4][5].\n- The evaporation process can exhibit multiple stages, each dominated by the evaporation of either the more volatile or less volatile component, and may involve complex behaviors like stick\u2013slip motion at the droplet\u2019s contact line[3].</p>\n\n<h2>Summary Table</h2>\n\n<table><thead>\n<tr>\n<th>Feature</th>\n<th>Pure Droplet</th>\n<th>Binary Droplet</th>\n</tr>\n</thead><tbody>\n<tr>\n<td>Composition</td>\n<td>One liquid</td>\n<td>Two liquids (e.g., water + ethanol)</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Evaporation</td>\n<td>Uniform, predictable</td>\n<td>Multi-stage, complex</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Surface Tension</td>\n<td>Constant</td>\n<td>Varies due to composition changes</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Shape During Life</td>\n<td>Spherical cap</td>\n<td>Can flatten, form pancake-like shapes</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Internal Flows</td>\n<td>Minimal</td>\n<td>Marangoni flows common</td>\n</tr>\n<tr>\n<td>Applications</td>\n<td>Limited</td>\n<td>Advanced (printing, microfluidics, etc)</td>\n</tr>\n</tbody></table>\n\n<p>In summary, a binary droplet is a two-component liquid droplet whose behavior\u2014especially during evaporation or under external influences\u2014is governed by the interplay between the different physical properties of its constituent fluids[3][4][5].</p>\n\n<p>Citations:\n[1] <a href=\"https://fyfluiddynamics.com/2025/01/the-mystery-of-the-binary-droplet/\">https://fyfluiddynamics.com/2025/01/the-mystery-of-the-binary-droplet/</a>\n[2] <a href=\"https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/096016869290057R\">https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/096016869290057R</a>\n[3] <a href=\"https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.langmuir.3c00914\">https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.langmuir.3c00914</a>\n[4] <a href=\"https://link.aps.org/doi/10.1103/PhysRevLett.127.024501\">https://link.aps.org/doi/10.1103/PhysRevLett.127.024501</a>\n[5] <a href=\"https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7556999/\">https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7556999/</a>\n[6] <a href=\"https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/14/11/4459\">https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/14/11/4459</a>\n[7] <a href=\"https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0009250923010667\">https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0009250923010667</a>\n[8] <a href=\"https://aiche.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/aic.18667?af=R\">https://aiche.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/aic.18667?af=R</a></p>\n\n<hr/>\n\n<p>Answer from Perplexity: pplx.ai/share</p>\n</div>","can_gild":false,"can_mod_post":false,"collapsed":false,"collapsed_because_crowd_control":null,"collapsed_reason":null,"collapsed_reason_code":null,"comment_type":null,"controversiality":0,"created":1744939988.0,"created_utc":1744939988.0,"distinguished":null,"downs":0,"edited":false,"gilded":0,"gildings":{},"id":"mnotl18","is_submitter":false,"likes":null,"link_id":"t3_1k0tkby","locked":false,"mod_note":null,"mod_reason_by":null,"mod_reason_title":null,"mod_reports":[],"name":"t1_mnotl18","no_follow":true,"num_reports":null,"parent_id":"t3_1k0tkby","permalink":"/r/askscience/comments/1k0tkby/whats_a_binary_droplet/mnotl18/","removal_reason":null,"replies":"","report_reasons":null,"saved":false,"score":1,"score_hidden":true,"send_replies":true,"stickied":false,"subreddit":"askscience","subreddit_id":"t5_2qm4e","subreddit_name_prefixed":"r/askscience","subreddit_type":"public","top_awarded_type":null,"total_awards_received":0,"treatment_tags":[],"unrepliable_reason":null,"ups":1,"user_reports":[]},{"all_awardings":[],"approved_at_utc":null,"approved_by":null,"archived":false,"associated_award":null,"author":"Nymaz","author_flair_background_color":null,"author_flair_css_class":null,"author_flair_richtext":[],"author_flair_template_id":null,"author_flair_text":null,"author_flair_text_color":null,"author_flair_type":"text","author_fullname":"t2_67t8o","author_is_blocked":false,"author_patreon_flair":false,"author_premium":false,"awarders":[],"banned_at_utc":null,"banned_by":null,"body":"Except I've been seeing a number of science communicators talking about how the majority of galaxies spin in the same direction.  How is \"same direction\" considered, then?\n\nsee: [here](https://phys.org/news/2025-03-puzzling-jwst-galaxies-deep-universe.html) and [here](https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/james-webb-space-telescope-reveals-that-most-galaxies-rotate-clockwise-180986224/)","body_html":"<div class=\"md\"><p>Except I've been seeing a number of science communicators talking about how the majority of galaxies spin in the same direction.  How is "same direction" considered, then?</p>\n\n<p>see: <a href=\"https://phys.org/news/2025-03-puzzling-jwst-galaxies-deep-universe.html\">here</a> and <a href=\"https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/james-webb-space-telescope-reveals-that-most-galaxies-rotate-clockwise-180986224/\">here</a></p>\n</div>","can_gild":false,"can_mod_post":false,"collapsed":false,"collapsed_because_crowd_control":null,"collapsed_reason":null,"collapsed_reason_code":null,"comment_type":null,"controversiality":0,"created":1744939569.0,"created_utc":1744939569.0,"distinguished":null,"downs":0,"edited":false,"gilded":0,"gildings":{},"id":"mnosh5y","is_submitter":false,"likes":null,"link_id":"t3_1k1pf0c","locked":false,"mod_note":null,"mod_reason_by":null,"mod_reason_title":null,"mod_reports":[],"name":"t1_mnosh5y","no_follow":true,"num_reports":null,"parent_id":"t1_mno1i57","permalink":"/r/askscience/comments/1k1pf0c/how_can_astronomers_tell_a_galaxy_spins/mnosh5y/","removal_reason":null,"replies":"","report_reasons":null,"saved":false,"score":1,"score_hidden":true,"send_replies":true,"stickied":false,"subreddit":"askscience","subreddit_id":"t5_2qm4e","subreddit_name_prefixed":"r/askscience","subreddit_type":"public","top_awarded_type":null,"total_awards_received":0,"treatment_tags":[],"unrepliable_reason":null,"ups":1,"user_reports":[]},{"all_awardings":[],"approved_at_utc":null,"approved_by":null,"archived":false,"associated_award":null,"author":"r2k-in-the-vortex","author_flair_background_color":null,"author_flair_css_class":null,"author_flair_richtext":[],"author_flair_template_id":null,"author_flair_text":null,"author_flair_text_color":null,"author_flair_type":"text","author_fullname":"t2_16yez9","author_is_blocked":false,"author_patreon_flair":false,"author_premium":false,"awarders":[],"banned_at_utc":null,"banned_by":null,"body":"That's very easy, they measure doppler shift of spectral lines. Receding part of disk is redshifted, approaching part is blueshifted.\n\n[https://www.astronomy.com/science/how-do-you-measure-the-rotational-speed-of-a-galaxy-taking-into-consideration-the-motion-of-our-galaxy-solar-system-planet-etc/](https://www.astronomy.com/science/how-do-you-measure-the-rotational-speed-of-a-galaxy-taking-into-consideration-the-motion-of-our-galaxy-solar-system-planet-etc/)","body_html":"<div class=\"md\"><p>That's very easy, they measure doppler shift of spectral lines. Receding part of disk is redshifted, approaching part is blueshifted.</p>\n\n<p><a href=\"https://www.astronomy.com/science/how-do-you-measure-the-rotational-speed-of-a-galaxy-taking-into-consideration-the-motion-of-our-galaxy-solar-system-planet-etc/\">https://www.astronomy.com/science/how-do-you-measure-the-rotational-speed-of-a-galaxy-taking-into-consideration-the-motion-of-our-galaxy-solar-system-planet-etc/</a></p>\n</div>","can_gild":false,"can_mod_post":false,"collapsed":false,"collapsed_because_crowd_control":null,"collapsed_reason":null,"collapsed_reason_code":null,"comment_type":null,"controversiality":0,"created":1744931954.0,"created_utc":1744931954.0,"distinguished":null,"downs":0,"edited":false,"gilded":0,"gildings":{},"id":"mno7g78","is_submitter":false,"likes":null,"link_id":"t3_1k1pf0c","locked":false,"mod_note":null,"mod_reason_by":null,"mod_reason_title":null,"mod_reports":[],"name":"t1_mno7g78","no_follow":true,"num_reports":null,"parent_id":"t3_1k1pf0c","permalink":"/r/askscience/comments/1k1pf0c/how_can_astronomers_tell_a_galaxy_spins/mno7g78/","removal_reason":null,"replies":"","report_reasons":null,"saved":false,"score":1,"score_hidden":true,"send_replies":true,"stickied":false,"subreddit":"askscience","subreddit_id":"t5_2qm4e","subreddit_name_prefixed":"r/askscience","subreddit_type":"public","top_awarded_type":null,"total_awards_received":0,"treatment_tags":[],"unrepliable_reason":null,"ups":1,"user_reports":[]},{"all_awardings":[],"approved_at_utc":null,"approved_by":null,"archived":false,"associated_award":null,"author":"hamlet9000","author_flair_background_color":null,"author_flair_css_class":null,"author_flair_richtext":[],"author_flair_template_id":null,"author_flair_text":null,"author_flair_text_color":null,"author_flair_type":"text","author_fullname":"t2_4ks83","author_is_blocked":false,"author_patreon_flair":false,"author_premium":false,"awarders":[],"banned_at_utc":null,"banned_by":null,"body":"> Phosphine is usually only present with large amounts of lifeforms\n\nYes.\n\n> so for awhile we assumed Venus was something like a dense jungle zone with a perpetual cloud layer,\n\nNo.\n\n\"Venus is a jungle\" was never really a scientific hypothesis. It's just a thing that science fiction made up because the planet was covered in clouds.\n\nRegardless, we've known for decades that Venus is definitely not a jungle, but the phosphine was only \"detected\" in [2020](https://news.mit.edu/2020/life-venus-phosphine-0914). But this \"detection\" has, at best, not been confirmed.\n\n> Instead it's just got phosphine because it's high pressure acid soup planet. \n\nIn fact, there's strong evidence that [there is no phosphine at all](https://blogs.nasa.gov/sofia/2022/11/29/no-phosphine-on-venus-according-to-sofia/).\n\ntl;dr Phosphine has nothing to do with the \"jungle Venus\" trope. It's likely not present on Venus at all. If it is, there has been no explanation for its presence. Your post is wrong in every meaningful way and you should probably just delete it.","body_html":"<div class=\"md\"><blockquote>\n<p>Phosphine is usually only present with large amounts of lifeforms</p>\n</blockquote>\n\n<p>Yes.</p>\n\n<blockquote>\n<p>so for awhile we assumed Venus was something like a dense jungle zone with a perpetual cloud layer,</p>\n</blockquote>\n\n<p>No.</p>\n\n<p>"Venus is a jungle" was never really a scientific hypothesis. It's just a thing that science fiction made up because the planet was covered in clouds.</p>\n\n<p>Regardless, we've known for decades that Venus is definitely not a jungle, but the phosphine was only "detected" in <a href=\"https://news.mit.edu/2020/life-venus-phosphine-0914\">2020</a>. But this "detection" has, at best, not been confirmed.</p>\n\n<blockquote>\n<p>Instead it's just got phosphine because it's high pressure acid soup planet. </p>\n</blockquote>\n\n<p>In fact, there's strong evidence that <a href=\"https://blogs.nasa.gov/sofia/2022/11/29/no-phosphine-on-venus-according-to-sofia/\">there is no phosphine at all</a>.</p>\n\n<p>tl;dr Phosphine has nothing to do with the "jungle Venus" trope. It's likely not present on Venus at all. If it is, there has been no explanation for its presence. Your post is wrong in every meaningful way and you should probably just delete it.</p>\n</div>","can_gild":false,"can_mod_post":false,"collapsed":false,"collapsed_because_crowd_control":null,"collapsed_reason":null,"collapsed_reason_code":null,"comment_type":null,"controversiality":0,"created":1744917486.0,"created_utc":1744917486.0,"distinguished":null,"downs":0,"edited":false,"gilded":0,"gildings":{},"id":"mnmx9pq","is_submitter":false,"likes":null,"link_id":"t3_1k16aud","locked":false,"mod_note":null,"mod_reason_by":null,"mod_reason_title":null,"mod_reports":[],"name":"t1_mnmx9pq","no_follow":true,"num_reports":null,"parent_id":"t1_mnl0x5k","permalink":"/r/askscience/comments/1k16aud/james_webb_telescope_has_recently_discovered/mnmx9pq/","removal_reason":null,"replies":"","report_reasons":null,"saved":false,"score":1,"score_hidden":true,"send_replies":true,"stickied":false,"subreddit":"askscience","subreddit_id":"t5_2qm4e","subreddit_name_prefixed":"r/askscience","subreddit_type":"public","top_awarded_type":null,"total_awards_received":0,"treatment_tags":[],"unrepliable_reason":null,"ups":1,"user_reports":[]},{"all_awardings":[],"approved_at_utc":null,"approved_by":null,"archived":false,"associated_award":null,"author":"askscience-ModTeam","author_flair_background_color":null,"author_flair_css_class":null,"author_flair_richtext":[],"author_flair_template_id":null,"author_flair_text":null,"author_flair_text_color":null,"author_flair_type":"text","author_fullname":"t2_rpe3jilg","author_is_blocked":false,"author_patreon_flair":false,"author_premium":false,"awarders":[],"banned_at_utc":null,"banned_by":null,"body":"Thank you for your submission! Unfortunately, your submission has been removed for the following reason(s):\n\n* A good home for this question is our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion. It might be too open-ended or speculative for /r/askscience. /r/AskScienceDiscussion is also a better place for advice on education, book suggestions or general questions about working in STEM. Please feel free to repost there!\n\n Please see our [guidelines](http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/wiki/guidelines#wiki_asking_askscience).\n\n* It is a question about science itself, which is best asked in another subreddit. Please see our [guidelines](http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/wiki/guidelines#wiki_questions_about_science_itself_are_best_answered_in_other_subreddits.).\n\n\n\nIf you disagree with this decision, please send a [message to the moderators.](https://www.reddit.com/message/compose?to=%2Fr%2Faskscience)","body_html":"<div class=\"md\"><p>Thank you for your submission! Unfortunately, your submission has been removed for the following reason(s):</p>\n\n<ul>\n<li><p>A good home for this question is our sister subreddit <a href=\"/r/AskScienceDiscussion\">/r/AskScienceDiscussion</a>. It might be too open-ended or speculative for <a href=\"/r/askscience\">/r/askscience</a>. <a href=\"/r/AskScienceDiscussion\">/r/AskScienceDiscussion</a> is also a better place for advice on education, book suggestions or general questions about working in STEM. Please feel free to repost there!</p>\n\n<p>Please see our <a href=\"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/wiki/guidelines#wiki_asking_askscience\">guidelines</a>.</p></li>\n<li><p>It is a question about science itself, which is best asked in another subreddit. Please see our <a href=\"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/wiki/guidelines#wiki_questions_about_science_itself_are_best_answered_in_other_subreddits.\">guidelines</a>.</p></li>\n</ul>\n\n<p>If you disagree with this decision, please send a <a href=\"https://www.reddit.com/message/compose?to=%2Fr%2Faskscience\">message to the moderators.</a></p>\n</div>","can_gild":false,"can_mod_post":false,"collapsed":false,"collapsed_because_crowd_control":null,"collapsed_reason":null,"collapsed_reason_code":null,"comment_type":null,"controversiality":0,"created":1744883102.0,"created_utc":1744883102.0,"distinguished":"moderator","downs":0,"edited":false,"gilded":0,"gildings":{},"id":"mnk37lm","is_submitter":false,"likes":null,"link_id":"t3_1k16jno","locked":false,"mod_note":null,"mod_reason_by":null,"mod_reason_title":null,"mod_reports":[],"name":"t1_mnk37lm","no_follow":true,"num_reports":null,"parent_id":"t3_1k16jno","permalink":"/r/askscience/comments/1k16jno/in_the_empirical_sciences_one_can_commit_academic/mnk37lm/","removal_reason":null,"replies":"","report_reasons":null,"saved":false,"score":1,"score_hidden":true,"send_replies":true,"stickied":true,"subreddit":"askscience","subreddit_id":"t5_2qm4e","subreddit_name_prefixed":"r/askscience","subreddit_type":"public","top_awarded_type":null,"total_awards_received":0,"treatment_tags":[],"unrepliable_reason":null,"ups":1,"user_reports":[]},{"all_awardings":[],"approved_at_utc":null,"approved_by":null,"archived":false,"associated_award":null,"author":"OlympusMons94","author_flair_background_color":null,"author_flair_css_class":null,"author_flair_richtext":[],"author_flair_template_id":null,"author_flair_text":null,"author_flair_text_color":null,"author_flair_type":"text","author_fullname":"t2_4gpe3ud6","author_is_blocked":false,"author_patreon_flair":false,"author_premium":false,"awarders":[],"banned_at_utc":null,"banned_by":null,"body":"That's somewhat misleading, though. Earth's current energy imbalance (primarily due to anthropogenic greenhouses gasses) is \"only\" about +1.5 * 10^(22) J (+15 billion terajoules) per year (more commonly expressed as +460 terrawatts). 580 million terajoules = 5.8 * 10^(20) J is about 4 percent of that imbalance, so the contribution from waste heat is currently small, but certainly not negligible. Waste heat of 5.8*10^(20) J/yr is equivalent to a continuous radiative forcing of 36 mW/m^(2) averaged over Earth'a surface. This happens to be comparable to the 34.3 mW/m^(2) radiative forcing resulting from global aviation CO2 emissions ([as of 2018](https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1352231020305689). Locally waste heat can be more significant, contributing to urban heat islands.","body_html":"<div class=\"md\"><p>That's somewhat misleading, though. Earth's current energy imbalance (primarily due to anthropogenic greenhouses gasses) is "only" about +1.5 * 10<sup>22</sup> J (+15 billion terajoules) per year (more commonly expressed as +460 terrawatts). 580 million terajoules = 5.8 * 10<sup>20</sup> J is about 4 percent of that imbalance, so the contribution from waste heat is currently small, but certainly not negligible. Waste heat of 5.8*10<sup>20</sup> J/yr is equivalent to a continuous radiative forcing of 36 mW/m<sup>2</sup> averaged over Earth'a surface. This happens to be comparable to the 34.3 mW/m<sup>2</sup> radiative forcing resulting from global aviation CO2 emissions (<a href=\"https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1352231020305689\">as of 2018</a>. Locally waste heat can be more significant, contributing to urban heat islands.</p>\n</div>","can_gild":false,"can_mod_post":false,"collapsed":false,"collapsed_because_crowd_control":null,"collapsed_reason":null,"collapsed_reason_code":null,"comment_type":null,"controversiality":0,"created":1744778496.0,"created_utc":1744778496.0,"distinguished":null,"downs":0,"edited":false,"gilded":0,"gildings":{},"id":"mncx7m8","is_submitter":false,"likes":null,"link_id":"t3_1k07vvw","locked":false,"mod_note":null,"mod_reason_by":null,"mod_reason_title":null,"mod_reports":[],"name":"t1_mncx7m8","no_follow":true,"num_reports":null,"parent_id":"t1_mnclmh3","permalink":"/r/askscience/comments/1k07vvw/space_is_cold_claim_is_it/mncx7m8/","removal_reason":null,"replies":"","report_reasons":null,"saved":false,"score":1,"score_hidden":true,"send_replies":true,"stickied":false,"subreddit":"askscience","subreddit_id":"t5_2qm4e","subreddit_name_prefixed":"r/askscience","subreddit_type":"public","top_awarded_type":null,"total_awards_received":0,"treatment_tags":[],"unrepliable_reason":null,"ups":1,"user_reports":[]},{"all_awardings":[],"approved_at_utc":null,"approved_by":null,"archived":false,"associated_award":null,"author":"Connaar","author_flair_background_color":null,"author_flair_css_class":null,"author_flair_richtext":[],"author_flair_template_id":null,"author_flair_text":null,"author_flair_text_color":null,"author_flair_type":"text","author_fullname":"t2_ozeig","author_is_blocked":false,"author_patreon_flair":false,"author_premium":false,"awarders":[],"banned_at_utc":null,"banned_by":null,"body":"Hey! I'm actually a Maryland alum myself with a degree in physics so fear the turtle and all that!\n\nI noticed that people without backgrounds in physical sciences have a loose understanding of most physics but quantum physics might as well be magic. How do you approach describing the basics to a layman? \n\nAlso say hi to Prof. Greene for me!","body_html":"<div class=\"md\"><p>Hey! I'm actually a Maryland alum myself with a degree in physics so fear the turtle and all that!</p>\n\n<p>I noticed that people without backgrounds in physical sciences have a loose understanding of most physics but quantum physics might as well be magic. How do you approach describing the basics to a layman? </p>\n\n<p>Also say hi to Prof. Greene for me!</p>\n</div>","can_gild":false,"can_mod_post":false,"collapsed":false,"collapsed_because_crowd_control":null,"collapsed_reason":null,"collapsed_reason_code":null,"comment_type":null,"controversiality":0,"created":1744759406.0,"created_utc":1744759406.0,"distinguished":null,"downs":0,"edited":false,"gilded":0,"gildings":{},"id":"mnbizl6","is_submitter":false,"likes":null,"link_id":"t3_1jywddb","locked":false,"mod_note":null,"mod_reason_by":null,"mod_reason_title":null,"mod_reports":[],"name":"t1_mnbizl6","no_follow":true,"num_reports":null,"parent_id":"t3_1jywddb","permalink":"/r/askscience/comments/1jywddb/askscience_ama_series_we_are_quantum_scientists/mnbizl6/","removal_reason":null,"replies":"","report_reasons":null,"saved":false,"score":1,"score_hidden":true,"send_replies":true,"stickied":false,"subreddit":"askscience","subreddit_id":"t5_2qm4e","subreddit_name_prefixed":"r/askscience","subreddit_type":"public","top_awarded_type":null,"total_awards_received":0,"treatment_tags":[],"unrepliable_reason":null,"ups":1,"user_reports":[]},{"all_awardings":[],"approved_at_utc":null,"approved_by":null,"archived":false,"associated_award":null,"author":"jqi_news","author_flair_background_color":"","author_flair_css_class":" physics","author_flair_richtext":[],"author_flair_template_id":null,"author_flair_text":"Quantum Science AMA","author_flair_text_color":"dark","author_flair_type":"text","author_fullname":"t2_djhxdsi1","author_is_blocked":false,"author_patreon_flair":false,"author_premium":false,"awarders":[],"banned_at_utc":null,"banned_by":null,"body":"ET: That's awesome! I want to encourage your passion. Your deep interest in learning more will be your greatest asset. I'd suggest that you take a modern physics course at your university, which will usually have an introduction to quantum physics.\u00a0And definitely linear algebra.\u00a0Then you can take a quantum mechanics course.\n\nIn the meantime, definitely have fun reading more popular articles and books. NIST has an\u00a0[\"explainer\" about quantum computing](https://www.nist.gov/quantum-information-science/quantum-computing-explained), and[\u00a0IBM also has some tutorials](https://learning.quantum.ibm.com/). Check out the physics section of [Quanta magazine](http://quantamagazine.org/),\u00a0[Physics Today](https://pubs.aip.org/physicstoday)\u00a0and the press release sections of university research departments, like ours at\u00a0[jqi.umd.edu](http://jqi.umd.edu/). I really enjoyed the book \"The Arrow of Time\" by Carlo Rovelli, and I'm looking forward to reading \"Quantum Steampunk\" by our colleague Nicole Yunger Halpern.\n\nFinally I definitely want to encourage you to do an internship or research experience. Ask a professor at your university whether you can work in their lab, or if they have a research problem you can work on, or a literature review.\u00a0If there is somebody at another institution who is doing something interesting to you, reach out and ask if you can participate in some way.\u00a0Not everybody will say yes, but you can likely find somebody who will say yes.","body_html":"<div class=\"md\"><p>ET: That's awesome! I want to encourage your passion. Your deep interest in learning more will be your greatest asset. I'd suggest that you take a modern physics course at your university, which will usually have an introduction to quantum physics.\u00a0And definitely linear algebra.\u00a0Then you can take a quantum mechanics course.</p>\n\n<p>In the meantime, definitely have fun reading more popular articles and books. NIST has an\u00a0<a href=\"https://www.nist.gov/quantum-information-science/quantum-computing-explained\">"explainer" about quantum computing</a>, and<a href=\"https://learning.quantum.ibm.com/\">\u00a0IBM also has some tutorials</a>. Check out the physics section of <a href=\"http://quantamagazine.org/\">Quanta magazine</a>,\u00a0<a href=\"https://pubs.aip.org/physicstoday\">Physics Today</a>\u00a0and the press release sections of university research departments, like ours at\u00a0<a href=\"http://jqi.umd.edu/\">jqi.umd.edu</a>. I really enjoyed the book "The Arrow of Time" by Carlo Rovelli, and I'm looking forward to reading "Quantum Steampunk" by our colleague Nicole Yunger Halpern.</p>\n\n<p>Finally I definitely want to encourage you to do an internship or research experience. Ask a professor at your university whether you can work in their lab, or if they have a research problem you can work on, or a literature review.\u00a0If there is somebody at another institution who is doing something interesting to you, reach out and ask if you can participate in some way.\u00a0Not everybody will say yes, but you can likely find somebody who will say yes.</p>\n</div>","can_gild":false,"can_mod_post":false,"collapsed":false,"collapsed_because_crowd_control":null,"collapsed_reason":null,"collapsed_reason_code":null,"comment_type":null,"controversiality":0,"created":1744725948.0,"created_utc":1744725948.0,"distinguished":null,"downs":0,"edited":false,"gilded":0,"gildings":{},"id":"mn8hj8j","is_submitter":false,"likes":null,"link_id":"t3_1jywddb","locked":false,"mod_note":null,"mod_reason_by":null,"mod_reason_title":null,"mod_reports":[],"name":"t1_mn8hj8j","no_follow":true,"num_reports":null,"parent_id":"t1_mn268fx","permalink":"/r/askscience/comments/1jywddb/askscience_ama_series_we_are_quantum_scientists/mn8hj8j/","removal_reason":null,"replies":"","report_reasons":null,"saved":false,"score":1,"score_hidden":true,"send_replies":true,"stickied":false,"subreddit":"askscience","subreddit_id":"t5_2qm4e","subreddit_name_prefixed":"r/askscience","subreddit_type":"public","top_awarded_type":null,"total_awards_received":0,"treatment_tags":[],"unrepliable_reason":null,"ups":1,"user_reports":[]},{"all_awardings":[],"approved_at_utc":null,"approved_by":null,"archived":false,"associated_award":null,"author":"lazylion_ca","author_flair_background_color":null,"author_flair_css_class":null,"author_flair_richtext":[],"author_flair_template_id":null,"author_flair_text":null,"author_flair_text_color":null,"author_flair_type":"text","author_fullname":"t2_37n99","author_is_blocked":false,"author_patreon_flair":false,"author_premium":false,"awarders":[],"banned_at_utc":null,"banned_by":null,"body":"What drew you to quantum specifically?  \n  \nWhat up and coming science personalities do you think are worth listening to regularly?","body_html":"<div class=\"md\"><p>What drew you to quantum specifically?  </p>\n\n<p>What up and coming science personalities do you think are worth listening to regularly?</p>\n</div>","can_gild":false,"can_mod_post":false,"collapsed":false,"collapsed_because_crowd_control":null,"collapsed_reason":null,"collapsed_reason_code":null,"comment_type":null,"controversiality":0,"created":1744686028.0,"created_utc":1744686028.0,"distinguished":null,"downs":0,"edited":false,"gilded":0,"gildings":{},"id":"mn6a2ue","is_submitter":false,"likes":null,"link_id":"t3_1jywddb","locked":false,"mod_note":null,"mod_reason_by":null,"mod_reason_title":null,"mod_reports":[],"name":"t1_mn6a2ue","no_follow":true,"num_reports":null,"parent_id":"t3_1jywddb","permalink":"/r/askscience/comments/1jywddb/askscience_ama_series_we_are_quantum_scientists/mn6a2ue/","removal_reason":null,"replies":"","report_reasons":null,"saved":false,"score":1,"score_hidden":true,"send_replies":true,"stickied":false,"subreddit":"askscience","subreddit_id":"t5_2qm4e","subreddit_name_prefixed":"r/askscience","subreddit_type":"public","top_awarded_type":null,"total_awards_received":0,"treatment_tags":[],"unrepliable_reason":null,"ups":1,"user_reports":[]},{"all_awardings":[],"approved_at_utc":null,"approved_by":null,"archived":false,"associated_award":null,"author":"Better_Macaron557","author_flair_background_color":null,"author_flair_css_class":null,"author_flair_richtext":[],"author_flair_template_id":null,"author_flair_text":null,"author_flair_text_color":null,"author_flair_type":"text","author_fullname":"t2_61nw0p59","author_is_blocked":false,"author_patreon_flair":false,"author_premium":false,"awarders":[],"banned_at_utc":null,"banned_by":null,"body":"I am a 3rd year computer engineering student. My interest is more inclined towards topics of physics than computer science.I had chosen CS as it seemed more practical compared to pure physics then.\n\nNow I am considering to combine my knowledge (CS) and interest(physics) and give Quantum Computing a try. \n\nI have a few questions. \n1) I think it is a bit late to start out as I my 3rd year is about to complete, still what can I do to build a good career out of it?\n2) How do I know whether Quantum Computing is really for me?","body_html":"<div class=\"md\"><p>I am a 3rd year computer engineering student. My interest is more inclined towards topics of physics than computer science.I had chosen CS as it seemed more practical compared to pure physics then.</p>\n\n<p>Now I am considering to combine my knowledge (CS) and interest(physics) and give Quantum Computing a try. </p>\n\n<p>I have a few questions. \n1) I think it is a bit late to start out as I my 3rd year is about to complete, still what can I do to build a good career out of it?\n2) How do I know whether Quantum Computing is really for me?</p>\n</div>","can_gild":false,"can_mod_post":false,"collapsed":false,"collapsed_because_crowd_control":null,"collapsed_reason":null,"collapsed_reason_code":null,"comment_type":null,"controversiality":0,"created":1744680030.0,"created_utc":1744680030.0,"distinguished":null,"downs":0,"edited":false,"gilded":0,"gildings":{},"id":"mn5u6ad","is_submitter":false,"likes":null,"link_id":"t3_1jywddb","locked":false,"mod_note":null,"mod_reason_by":null,"mod_reason_title":null,"mod_reports":[],"name":"t1_mn5u6ad","no_follow":true,"num_reports":null,"parent_id":"t3_1jywddb","permalink":"/r/askscience/comments/1jywddb/askscience_ama_series_we_are_quantum_scientists/mn5u6ad/","removal_reason":null,"replies":"","report_reasons":null,"saved":false,"score":1,"score_hidden":true,"send_replies":true,"stickied":false,"subreddit":"askscience","subreddit_id":"t5_2qm4e","subreddit_name_prefixed":"r/askscience","subreddit_type":"public","top_awarded_type":null,"total_awards_received":0,"treatment_tags":[],"unrepliable_reason":null,"ups":1,"user_reports":[]},{"all_awardings":[],"approved_at_utc":null,"approved_by":null,"archived":false,"associated_award":null,"author":"jqi_news","author_flair_background_color":"","author_flair_css_class":" physics","author_flair_richtext":[],"author_flair_template_id":null,"author_flair_text":"Quantum Science AMA","author_flair_text_color":"dark","author_flair_type":"text","author_fullname":"t2_djhxdsi1","author_is_blocked":false,"author_patreon_flair":false,"author_premium":false,"awarders":[],"banned_at_utc":null,"banned_by":null,"body":"SR: We are very concerned. It's a grave threat to the US leadership in science.\n\nAG: Six years from now there's going to be a drop in the number of PhDs from US universities because no one's hiring new graduate students because they're not confident that the funding will be there to train them.\n\nET: International students and researchers are feeling discouraged from coming to the US and contributing to our science.","body_html":"<div class=\"md\"><p>SR: We are very concerned. It's a grave threat to the US leadership in science.</p>\n\n<p>AG: Six years from now there's going to be a drop in the number of PhDs from US universities because no one's hiring new graduate students because they're not confident that the funding will be there to train them.</p>\n\n<p>ET: International students and researchers are feeling discouraged from coming to the US and contributing to our science.</p>\n</div>","can_gild":false,"can_mod_post":false,"collapsed":false,"collapsed_because_crowd_control":null,"collapsed_reason":null,"collapsed_reason_code":null,"comment_type":null,"controversiality":0,"created":1744659891.0,"created_utc":1744659891.0,"distinguished":null,"downs":0,"edited":false,"gilded":0,"gildings":{},"id":"mn45r5h","is_submitter":false,"likes":null,"link_id":"t3_1jywddb","locked":false,"mod_note":null,"mod_reason_by":null,"mod_reason_title":null,"mod_reports":[],"name":"t1_mn45r5h","no_follow":true,"num_reports":null,"parent_id":"t1_mn42x73","permalink":"/r/askscience/comments/1jywddb/askscience_ama_series_we_are_quantum_scientists/mn45r5h/","removal_reason":null,"replies":"","report_reasons":null,"saved":false,"score":1,"score_hidden":true,"send_replies":true,"stickied":false,"subreddit":"askscience","subreddit_id":"t5_2qm4e","subreddit_name_prefixed":"r/askscience","subreddit_type":"public","top_awarded_type":null,"total_awards_received":0,"treatment_tags":[],"unrepliable_reason":null,"ups":1,"user_reports":[]},{"all_awardings":[],"approved_at_utc":null,"approved_by":null,"archived":false,"associated_award":null,"author":"nujuat","author_flair_background_color":null,"author_flair_css_class":null,"author_flair_richtext":[],"author_flair_template_id":null,"author_flair_text":null,"author_flair_text_color":null,"author_flair_type":"text","author_fullname":"t2_2xh0eqmy","author_is_blocked":false,"author_patreon_flair":false,"author_premium":false,"awarders":[],"banned_at_utc":null,"banned_by":null,"body":"As scientists in America, how concerned are you about DOGE cuts/interference for (1) your own research and (2) for American science in general?","body_html":"<div class=\"md\"><p>As scientists in America, how concerned are you about DOGE cuts/interference for (1) your own research and (2) for American science in general?</p>\n</div>","can_gild":false,"can_mod_post":false,"collapsed":false,"collapsed_because_crowd_control":null,"collapsed_reason":null,"collapsed_reason_code":null,"comment_type":null,"controversiality":0,"created":1744659008.0,"created_utc":1744659008.0,"distinguished":null,"downs":0,"edited":false,"gilded":0,"gildings":{},"id":"mn42x73","is_submitter":false,"likes":null,"link_id":"t3_1jywddb","locked":false,"mod_note":null,"mod_reason_by":null,"mod_reason_title":null,"mod_reports":[],"name":"t1_mn42x73","no_follow":true,"num_reports":null,"parent_id":"t3_1jywddb","permalink":"/r/askscience/comments/1jywddb/askscience_ama_series_we_are_quantum_scientists/mn42x73/","removal_reason":null,"replies":"","report_reasons":null,"saved":false,"score":1,"score_hidden":true,"send_replies":true,"stickied":false,"subreddit":"askscience","subreddit_id":"t5_2qm4e","subreddit_name_prefixed":"r/askscience","subreddit_type":"public","top_awarded_type":null,"total_awards_received":0,"treatment_tags":[],"unrepliable_reason":null,"ups":1,"user_reports":[]},{"all_awardings":[],"approved_at_utc":null,"approved_by":null,"archived":false,"associated_award":null,"author":"jqi_news","author_flair_background_color":"","author_flair_css_class":" physics","author_flair_richtext":[],"author_flair_template_id":null,"author_flair_text":"Quantum Science AMA","author_flair_text_color":"dark","author_flair_type":"text","author_fullname":"t2_djhxdsi1","author_is_blocked":false,"author_patreon_flair":false,"author_premium":false,"awarders":[],"banned_at_utc":null,"banned_by":null,"body":"AM and ET: Collaboration with other universities and countries is critical to the advance of science, and anything that inhibits that collaboration slows science. AI is a useful tool for some applications, like optimizing complex parameter spaces in experiments.\n\nAG: I think that AI also has the capacity to slow science by making us all stupid and sacrificing human intelligence for artificial intelligence.","body_html":"<div class=\"md\"><p>AM and ET: Collaboration with other universities and countries is critical to the advance of science, and anything that inhibits that collaboration slows science. AI is a useful tool for some applications, like optimizing complex parameter spaces in experiments.</p>\n\n<p>AG: I think that AI also has the capacity to slow science by making us all stupid and sacrificing human intelligence for artificial intelligence.</p>\n</div>","can_gild":false,"can_mod_post":false,"collapsed":false,"collapsed_because_crowd_control":null,"collapsed_reason":null,"collapsed_reason_code":null,"comment_type":null,"controversiality":0,"created":1744656840.0,"created_utc":1744656840.0,"distinguished":null,"downs":0,"edited":false,"gilded":0,"gildings":{},"id":"mn3vvfw","is_submitter":false,"likes":null,"link_id":"t3_1jywddb","locked":false,"mod_note":null,"mod_reason_by":null,"mod_reason_title":null,"mod_reports":[],"name":"t1_mn3vvfw","no_follow":true,"num_reports":null,"parent_id":"t1_mn1pm31","permalink":"/r/askscience/comments/1jywddb/askscience_ama_series_we_are_quantum_scientists/mn3vvfw/","removal_reason":null,"replies":"","report_reasons":null,"saved":false,"score":1,"score_hidden":true,"send_replies":true,"stickied":false,"subreddit":"askscience","subreddit_id":"t5_2qm4e","subreddit_name_prefixed":"r/askscience","subreddit_type":"public","top_awarded_type":null,"total_awards_received":0,"treatment_tags":[],"unrepliable_reason":null,"ups":1,"user_reports":[]},{"all_awardings":[],"approved_at_utc":null,"approved_by":null,"archived":false,"associated_award":null,"author":"jqi_news","author_flair_background_color":"","author_flair_css_class":" physics","author_flair_richtext":[],"author_flair_template_id":null,"author_flair_text":"Quantum Science AMA","author_flair_text_color":"dark","author_flair_type":"text","author_fullname":"t2_djhxdsi1","author_is_blocked":false,"author_patreon_flair":false,"author_premium":false,"awarders":[],"banned_at_utc":null,"banned_by":null,"body":"SR: For 1: Maybe? For the others, it's a case where corporate hype has gotten carried away a bit, and it's not a normal way we report science. But they are serious people working on serious science.\n\nET (on 5): The coolest thing about quantum mechanics is that it's a wild-sounding theory that actual describes real experiments.\n\nAM (on 5): Check out the JQI YouTube channel for today's seminar, which included gravitational effects in quantum entanglement.\n\nAG (on 5): My cool fact is that we do not understand how classical reality emerges from quantum mechanics despite the fact that we understand quantum mechanics quite well.","body_html":"<div class=\"md\"><p>SR: For 1: Maybe? For the others, it's a case where corporate hype has gotten carried away a bit, and it's not a normal way we report science. But they are serious people working on serious science.</p>\n\n<p>ET (on 5): The coolest thing about quantum mechanics is that it's a wild-sounding theory that actual describes real experiments.</p>\n\n<p>AM (on 5): Check out the JQI YouTube channel for today's seminar, which included gravitational effects in quantum entanglement.</p>\n\n<p>AG (on 5): My cool fact is that we do not understand how classical reality emerges from quantum mechanics despite the fact that we understand quantum mechanics quite well.</p>\n</div>","can_gild":false,"can_mod_post":false,"collapsed":false,"collapsed_because_crowd_control":null,"collapsed_reason":null,"collapsed_reason_code":null,"comment_type":null,"controversiality":0,"created":1744656498.0,"created_utc":1744656498.0,"distinguished":null,"downs":0,"edited":false,"gilded":0,"gildings":{},"id":"mn3uq8s","is_submitter":false,"likes":null,"link_id":"t3_1jywddb","locked":false,"mod_note":null,"mod_reason_by":null,"mod_reason_title":null,"mod_reports":[],"name":"t1_mn3uq8s","no_follow":true,"num_reports":null,"parent_id":"t1_mn28xmd","permalink":"/r/askscience/comments/1jywddb/askscience_ama_series_we_are_quantum_scientists/mn3uq8s/","removal_reason":null,"replies":"","report_reasons":null,"saved":false,"score":1,"score_hidden":true,"send_replies":true,"stickied":false,"subreddit":"askscience","subreddit_id":"t5_2qm4e","subreddit_name_prefixed":"r/askscience","subreddit_type":"public","top_awarded_type":null,"total_awards_received":0,"treatment_tags":[],"unrepliable_reason":null,"ups":1,"user_reports":[]},{"all_awardings":[],"approved_at_utc":null,"approved_by":null,"archived":false,"associated_award":null,"author":"-LordRupertEverton","author_flair_background_color":null,"author_flair_css_class":null,"author_flair_richtext":[],"author_flair_template_id":null,"author_flair_text":null,"author_flair_text_color":null,"author_flair_type":"text","author_fullname":"t2_8j0ppban","author_is_blocked":false,"author_patreon_flair":false,"author_premium":false,"awarders":[],"banned_at_utc":null,"banned_by":null,"body":"This might be a bit off topic, but what advice would you give to a parent trying to get their kids interested in science from an early age?","body_html":"<div class=\"md\"><p>This might be a bit off topic, but what advice would you give to a parent trying to get their kids interested in science from an early age?</p>\n</div>","can_gild":false,"can_mod_post":false,"collapsed":false,"collapsed_because_crowd_control":null,"collapsed_reason":null,"collapsed_reason_code":null,"comment_type":null,"controversiality":0,"created":1744652670.0,"created_utc":1744652670.0,"distinguished":null,"downs":0,"edited":false,"gilded":0,"gildings":{},"id":"mn3hsg9","is_submitter":false,"likes":null,"link_id":"t3_1jywddb","locked":false,"mod_note":null,"mod_reason_by":null,"mod_reason_title":null,"mod_reports":[],"name":"t1_mn3hsg9","no_follow":true,"num_reports":null,"parent_id":"t3_1jywddb","permalink":"/r/askscience/comments/1jywddb/askscience_ama_series_we_are_quantum_scientists/mn3hsg9/","removal_reason":null,"replies":"","report_reasons":null,"saved":false,"score":1,"score_hidden":true,"send_replies":true,"stickied":false,"subreddit":"askscience","subreddit_id":"t5_2qm4e","subreddit_name_prefixed":"r/askscience","subreddit_type":"public","top_awarded_type":null,"total_awards_received":0,"treatment_tags":[],"unrepliable_reason":null,"ups":1,"user_reports":[]},{"all_awardings":[],"approved_at_utc":null,"approved_by":null,"archived":false,"associated_award":null,"author":"timerot","author_flair_background_color":null,"author_flair_css_class":null,"author_flair_richtext":[],"author_flair_template_id":null,"author_flair_text":null,"author_flair_text_color":null,"author_flair_type":"text","author_fullname":"t2_rdvif","author_is_blocked":false,"author_patreon_flair":false,"author_premium":false,"awarders":[],"banned_at_utc":null,"banned_by":null,"body":"What's your favorite popular misunderstanding about quantum science? Do you send bad articles back and forth when a news outlet reads a paper about e.g. quantum teleportation and \"summarizes\" it in a way that completely misses the point of the paper?","body_html":"<div class=\"md\"><p>What's your favorite popular misunderstanding about quantum science? Do you send bad articles back and forth when a news outlet reads a paper about e.g. quantum teleportation and "summarizes" it in a way that completely misses the point of the paper?</p>\n</div>","can_gild":false,"can_mod_post":false,"collapsed":false,"collapsed_because_crowd_control":null,"collapsed_reason":null,"collapsed_reason_code":null,"comment_type":null,"controversiality":0,"created":1744640694.0,"created_utc":1744640694.0,"distinguished":null,"downs":0,"edited":false,"gilded":0,"gildings":{},"id":"mn2dy9u","is_submitter":false,"likes":null,"link_id":"t3_1jywddb","locked":false,"mod_note":null,"mod_reason_by":null,"mod_reason_title":null,"mod_reports":[],"name":"t1_mn2dy9u","no_follow":true,"num_reports":null,"parent_id":"t3_1jywddb","permalink":"/r/askscience/comments/1jywddb/askscience_ama_series_we_are_quantum_scientists/mn2dy9u/","removal_reason":null,"replies":"","report_reasons":null,"saved":false,"score":1,"score_hidden":true,"send_replies":true,"stickied":false,"subreddit":"askscience","subreddit_id":"t5_2qm4e","subreddit_name_prefixed":"r/askscience","subreddit_type":"public","top_awarded_type":null,"total_awards_received":0,"treatment_tags":[],"unrepliable_reason":null,"ups":1,"user_reports":[]},{"all_awardings":[],"approved_at_utc":null,"approved_by":null,"archived":false,"associated_award":null,"author":"CharlesTheBob","author_flair_background_color":null,"author_flair_css_class":null,"author_flair_richtext":[],"author_flair_template_id":null,"author_flair_text":null,"author_flair_text_color":null,"author_flair_type":"text","author_fullname":"t2_n6y9q","author_is_blocked":false,"author_patreon_flair":false,"author_premium":false,"awarders":[],"banned_at_utc":null,"banned_by":null,"body":"As an aside, many science/astronomy youtube vids should be taken with a grain of salt. And be aware of when they say \u201cscientists say this planet COULD rain crystals\u201d, \u201cscientists say this planet MAY be so hot it melts rock.\u201d Those coulds, maybes, and mights are doing some heavy lifting. And while actual scientists oftentimes give many potential explanations for observations made, a popular science youtube channel is just going to report what sounds exciting.","body_html":"<div class=\"md\"><p>As an aside, many science/astronomy youtube vids should be taken with a grain of salt. And be aware of when they say \u201cscientists say this planet COULD rain crystals\u201d, \u201cscientists say this planet MAY be so hot it melts rock.\u201d Those coulds, maybes, and mights are doing some heavy lifting. And while actual scientists oftentimes give many potential explanations for observations made, a popular science youtube channel is just going to report what sounds exciting.</p>\n</div>","can_gild":false,"can_mod_post":false,"collapsed":false,"collapsed_because_crowd_control":null,"collapsed_reason":null,"collapsed_reason_code":null,"comment_type":null,"controversiality":0,"created":1744589681.0,"created_utc":1744589681.0,"distinguished":null,"downs":0,"edited":false,"gilded":0,"gildings":{},"id":"mmzetqg","is_submitter":false,"likes":null,"link_id":"t3_1jyg3vj","locked":false,"mod_note":null,"mod_reason_by":null,"mod_reason_title":null,"mod_reports":[],"name":"t1_mmzetqg","no_follow":true,"num_reports":null,"parent_id":"t3_1jyg3vj","permalink":"/r/askscience/comments/1jyg3vj/how_can_astronomers_determine_specific_conditions/mmzetqg/","removal_reason":null,"replies":"","report_reasons":null,"saved":false,"score":1,"score_hidden":true,"send_replies":true,"stickied":false,"subreddit":"askscience","subreddit_id":"t5_2qm4e","subreddit_name_prefixed":"r/askscience","subreddit_type":"public","top_awarded_type":null,"total_awards_received":0,"treatment_tags":[],"unrepliable_reason":null,"ups":1,"user_reports":[]},{"all_awardings":[],"approved_at_utc":null,"approved_by":null,"archived":false,"associated_award":null,"author":"Gutter_Snoop","author_flair_background_color":null,"author_flair_css_class":null,"author_flair_richtext":[],"author_flair_template_id":null,"author_flair_text":null,"author_flair_text_color":null,"author_flair_type":"text","author_fullname":"t2_f6wwjwf8h","author_is_blocked":false,"author_patreon_flair":false,"author_premium":false,"awarders":[],"banned_at_utc":null,"banned_by":null,"body":"It's been slightly alluded to in other comments, but a majority of exoplanets we know of are around red dwarfs which, on average, are about half Sol's mass or less. As others have also said, that's due in part to how we detect planets -- either wobble or periodic dimming. The former is easier to detect around less massive stars because the wiggle is more pronounced, the latter is easier to detect because brighter stars will have a tendency to not have noticeable dimming unless the planet in transit is REALLY massive -- smaller planets tend to get lost in the glare.\n\nSo with less massive red dwarfs, larger planets can orbit much closer without hitting their Roche limit, because Roche limit has a lot to do with gravitational differential of the bodies at work, among other things. \n\nThere's a lot of studies about what happens with planets in early solar system development. From what I remember, a lot of simulations based on known science do end up with a gas giant forming further from its host star and migrating inward. As far as we know, our solar system got lucky, because there's evidence Jupiter started on an inward track, but due to a fortuitous orbital resonance with Saturn, settled where it was today -- but not before sucking a lot of planetary building material out of the orbits of Mars and the asteroid belt. If it weren't for Saturn, there's a decent likelihood Jupiter would have swept the inner solar system clean and gone on to orbit Sol somewhere around Mercury's orbit or closer.","body_html":"<div class=\"md\"><p>It's been slightly alluded to in other comments, but a majority of exoplanets we know of are around red dwarfs which, on average, are about half Sol's mass or less. As others have also said, that's due in part to how we detect planets -- either wobble or periodic dimming. The former is easier to detect around less massive stars because the wiggle is more pronounced, the latter is easier to detect because brighter stars will have a tendency to not have noticeable dimming unless the planet in transit is REALLY massive -- smaller planets tend to get lost in the glare.</p>\n\n<p>So with less massive red dwarfs, larger planets can orbit much closer without hitting their Roche limit, because Roche limit has a lot to do with gravitational differential of the bodies at work, among other things. </p>\n\n<p>There's a lot of studies about what happens with planets in early solar system development. From what I remember, a lot of simulations based on known science do end up with a gas giant forming further from its host star and migrating inward. As far as we know, our solar system got lucky, because there's evidence Jupiter started on an inward track, but due to a fortuitous orbital resonance with Saturn, settled where it was today -- but not before sucking a lot of planetary building material out of the orbits of Mars and the asteroid belt. If it weren't for Saturn, there's a decent likelihood Jupiter would have swept the inner solar system clean and gone on to orbit Sol somewhere around Mercury's orbit or closer.</p>\n</div>","can_gild":false,"can_mod_post":false,"collapsed":false,"collapsed_because_crowd_control":null,"collapsed_reason":null,"collapsed_reason_code":null,"comment_type":null,"controversiality":0,"created":1744567007.0,"created_utc":1744567007.0,"distinguished":null,"downs":0,"edited":false,"gilded":0,"gildings":{},"id":"mmxja4m","is_submitter":false,"likes":null,"link_id":"t3_1jxmk44","locked":false,"mod_note":null,"mod_reason_by":null,"mod_reason_title":null,"mod_reports":[],"name":"t1_mmxja4m","no_follow":true,"num_reports":null,"parent_id":"t3_1jxmk44","permalink":"/r/askscience/comments/1jxmk44/why_do_some_exoplanets_have_extremely_short/mmxja4m/","removal_reason":null,"replies":"","report_reasons":null,"saved":false,"score":1,"score_hidden":true,"send_replies":true,"stickied":false,"subreddit":"askscience","subreddit_id":"t5_2qm4e","subreddit_name_prefixed":"r/askscience","subreddit_type":"public","top_awarded_type":null,"total_awards_received":0,"treatment_tags":[],"unrepliable_reason":null,"ups":1,"user_reports":[]},{"all_awardings":[],"approved_at_utc":null,"approved_by":null,"archived":false,"associated_award":null,"author":"Aenyn","author_flair_background_color":null,"author_flair_css_class":null,"author_flair_richtext":[],"author_flair_template_id":null,"author_flair_text":null,"author_flair_text_color":null,"author_flair_type":"text","author_fullname":"t2_hrp1p","author_is_blocked":false,"author_patreon_flair":false,"author_premium":false,"awarders":[],"banned_at_utc":null,"banned_by":null,"body":"The other guy is right but still the \"full Earth\" does appear brighter than the full Moon from the point of view of a spacecraft looking back at both of them:\n\nhttps://assets.science.nasa.gov/dynamicimage/assets/science/psd/lunar-science/2023/08/discovr_moon.jpg?w=1920&h=1920&fit=clip&crop=faces%2Cfocalpoint","body_html":"<div class=\"md\"><p>The other guy is right but still the "full Earth" does appear brighter than the full Moon from the point of view of a spacecraft looking back at both of them:</p>\n\n<p><a href=\"https://assets.science.nasa.gov/dynamicimage/assets/science/psd/lunar-science/2023/08/discovr_moon.jpg?w=1920&h=1920&fit=clip&crop=faces%2Cfocalpoint\">https://assets.science.nasa.gov/dynamicimage/assets/science/psd/lunar-science/2023/08/discovr_moon.jpg?w=1920&h=1920&fit=clip&crop=faces%2Cfocalpoint</a></p>\n</div>","can_gild":false,"can_mod_post":false,"collapsed":false,"collapsed_because_crowd_control":null,"collapsed_reason":null,"collapsed_reason_code":null,"comment_type":null,"controversiality":0,"created":1744542515.0,"created_utc":1744542515.0,"distinguished":null,"downs":0,"edited":false,"gilded":0,"gildings":{},"id":"mmvmdn7","is_submitter":false,"likes":null,"link_id":"t3_1jxq5t5","locked":false,"mod_note":null,"mod_reason_by":null,"mod_reason_title":null,"mod_reports":[],"name":"t1_mmvmdn7","no_follow":true,"num_reports":null,"parent_id":"t1_mmvjimr","permalink":"/r/askscience/comments/1jxq5t5/is_the_moon_a_particularly_reflective_body_or/mmvmdn7/","removal_reason":null,"replies":"","report_reasons":null,"saved":false,"score":1,"score_hidden":true,"send_replies":true,"stickied":false,"subreddit":"askscience","subreddit_id":"t5_2qm4e","subreddit_name_prefixed":"r/askscience","subreddit_type":"public","top_awarded_type":null,"total_awards_received":0,"treatment_tags":[],"unrepliable_reason":null,"ups":1,"user_reports":[]},{"all_awardings":[],"approved_at_utc":null,"approved_by":null,"archived":false,"associated_award":null,"author":"askscience-ModTeam","author_flair_background_color":null,"author_flair_css_class":null,"author_flair_richtext":[],"author_flair_template_id":null,"author_flair_text":null,"author_flair_text_color":null,"author_flair_type":"text","author_fullname":"t2_rpe3jilg","author_is_blocked":false,"author_patreon_flair":false,"author_premium":false,"awarders":[],"banned_at_utc":null,"banned_by":null,"body":"Thank you for your submission! Unfortunately, your submission has been removed for the following reason(s):\n\n* It is a question about science itself, which is best asked in another subreddit. Please see our [guidelines](http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/wiki/guidelines#wiki_questions_about_science_itself_are_best_answered_in_other_subreddits.).\n\n\n\nIf you disagree with this decision, please send a [message to the moderators.](https://www.reddit.com/message/compose?to=%2Fr%2Faskscience)","body_html":"<div class=\"md\"><p>Thank you for your submission! Unfortunately, your submission has been removed for the following reason(s):</p>\n\n<ul>\n<li>It is a question about science itself, which is best asked in another subreddit. Please see our <a href=\"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/wiki/guidelines#wiki_questions_about_science_itself_are_best_answered_in_other_subreddits.\">guidelines</a>.</li>\n</ul>\n\n<p>If you disagree with this decision, please send a <a href=\"https://www.reddit.com/message/compose?to=%2Fr%2Faskscience\">message to the moderators.</a></p>\n</div>","can_gild":false,"can_mod_post":false,"collapsed":false,"collapsed_because_crowd_control":null,"collapsed_reason":null,"collapsed_reason_code":null,"comment_type":null,"controversiality":0,"created":1744528901.0,"created_utc":1744528901.0,"distinguished":"moderator","downs":0,"edited":false,"gilded":0,"gildings":{},"id":"mmv0vmg","is_submitter":false,"likes":null,"link_id":"t3_1jxwuio","locked":false,"mod_note":null,"mod_reason_by":null,"mod_reason_title":null,"mod_reports":[],"name":"t1_mmv0vmg","no_follow":true,"num_reports":null,"parent_id":"t3_1jxwuio","permalink":"/r/askscience/comments/1jxwuio/what_is_the_present_moment_how_long_is_it/mmv0vmg/","removal_reason":null,"replies":"","report_reasons":null,"saved":false,"score":1,"score_hidden":true,"send_replies":true,"stickied":true,"subreddit":"askscience","subreddit_id":"t5_2qm4e","subreddit_name_prefixed":"r/askscience","subreddit_type":"public","top_awarded_type":null,"total_awards_received":0,"treatment_tags":[],"unrepliable_reason":null,"ups":1,"user_reports":[]},{"all_awardings":[],"approved_at_utc":null,"approved_by":null,"archived":false,"associated_award":null,"author":"askscience-ModTeam","author_flair_background_color":null,"author_flair_css_class":null,"author_flair_richtext":[],"author_flair_template_id":null,"author_flair_text":null,"author_flair_text_color":null,"author_flair_type":"text","author_fullname":"t2_rpe3jilg","author_is_blocked":false,"author_patreon_flair":false,"author_premium":false,"awarders":[],"banned_at_utc":null,"banned_by":null,"body":"Thank you for your submission! Unfortunately, your submission has been removed for the following reason(s):\n\n* It is a question about science itself, which is best asked in another subreddit. Please see our [guidelines](http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/wiki/guidelines#wiki_questions_about_science_itself_are_best_answered_in_other_subreddits.).\n\n* You cannot prove a negatice like this.\n\n\n\nIf you disagree with this decision, please send a [message to the moderators.](https://www.reddit.com/message/compose?to=%2Fr%2Faskscience)","body_html":"<div class=\"md\"><p>Thank you for your submission! Unfortunately, your submission has been removed for the following reason(s):</p>\n\n<ul>\n<li><p>It is a question about science itself, which is best asked in another subreddit. Please see our <a href=\"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/wiki/guidelines#wiki_questions_about_science_itself_are_best_answered_in_other_subreddits.\">guidelines</a>.</p></li>\n<li><p>You cannot prove a negatice like this.</p></li>\n</ul>\n\n<p>If you disagree with this decision, please send a <a href=\"https://www.reddit.com/message/compose?to=%2Fr%2Faskscience\">message to the moderators.</a></p>\n</div>","can_gild":false,"can_mod_post":false,"collapsed":false,"collapsed_because_crowd_control":null,"collapsed_reason":null,"collapsed_reason_code":null,"comment_type":null,"controversiality":0,"created":1744424414.0,"created_utc":1744424414.0,"distinguished":"moderator","downs":0,"edited":false,"gilded":0,"gildings":{},"id":"mmo4qp3","is_submitter":false,"likes":null,"link_id":"t3_1jx26sr","locked":false,"mod_note":null,"mod_reason_by":null,"mod_reason_title":null,"mod_reports":[],"name":"t1_mmo4qp3","no_follow":true,"num_reports":null,"parent_id":"t3_1jx26sr","permalink":"/r/askscience/comments/1jx26sr/have_we_proven_definitively_that_magic_doesnt/mmo4qp3/","removal_reason":null,"replies":"","report_reasons":null,"saved":false,"score":1,"score_hidden":true,"send_replies":true,"stickied":true,"subreddit":"askscience","subreddit_id":"t5_2qm4e","subreddit_name_prefixed":"r/askscience","subreddit_type":"public","top_awarded_type":null,"total_awards_received":0,"treatment_tags":[],"unrepliable_reason":null,"ups":1,"user_reports":[]},{"all_awardings":[],"approved_at_utc":null,"approved_by":null,"archived":false,"associated_award":null,"author":"Yaver_Mbizi","author_flair_background_color":null,"author_flair_css_class":null,"author_flair_richtext":[],"author_flair_template_id":null,"author_flair_text":null,"author_flair_text_color":null,"author_flair_type":"text","author_fullname":"t2_f486g","author_is_blocked":false,"author_patreon_flair":false,"author_premium":false,"awarders":[],"banned_at_utc":null,"banned_by":null,"body":"It's not really a misconception, it's just a turn of the phrase/simplification that is commonly taught in school and air conditioning science/engineering (such as they are). It's 100% true that if the local atmosphere is at a higher temperature, more of the water will be able to get into its vapour phase. You are correct about the underlying mechanism, but I don't think it's a particularly relevant nuance that the same is true for an atmosphere of pure water vapour.","body_html":"<div class=\"md\"><p>It's not really a misconception, it's just a turn of the phrase/simplification that is commonly taught in school and air conditioning science/engineering (such as they are). It's 100% true that if the local atmosphere is at a higher temperature, more of the water will be able to get into its vapour phase. You are correct about the underlying mechanism, but I don't think it's a particularly relevant nuance that the same is true for an atmosphere of pure water vapour.</p>\n</div>","can_gild":false,"can_mod_post":false,"collapsed":false,"collapsed_because_crowd_control":null,"collapsed_reason":null,"collapsed_reason_code":null,"comment_type":null,"controversiality":0,"created":1744384437.0,"created_utc":1744384437.0,"distinguished":null,"downs":0,"edited":false,"gilded":0,"gildings":{},"id":"mmkqf14","is_submitter":false,"likes":null,"link_id":"t3_1jwajqy","locked":false,"mod_note":null,"mod_reason_by":null,"mod_reason_title":null,"mod_reports":[],"name":"t1_mmkqf14","no_follow":true,"num_reports":null,"parent_id":"t1_mmjuzs3","permalink":"/r/askscience/comments/1jwajqy/if_the_air_is_at_100_humidity_and_i_leave_out_a/mmkqf14/","removal_reason":null,"replies":"","report_reasons":null,"saved":false,"score":1,"score_hidden":true,"send_replies":true,"stickied":false,"subreddit":"askscience","subreddit_id":"t5_2qm4e","subreddit_name_prefixed":"r/askscience","subreddit_type":"public","top_awarded_type":null,"total_awards_received":0,"treatment_tags":[],"unrepliable_reason":null,"ups":1,"user_reports":[]},{"all_awardings":[],"approved_at_utc":null,"approved_by":null,"archived":false,"associated_award":null,"author":"Rhywden","author_flair_background_color":null,"author_flair_css_class":null,"author_flair_richtext":[],"author_flair_template_id":null,"author_flair_text":null,"author_flair_text_color":null,"author_flair_type":"text","author_fullname":"t2_cm77n","author_is_blocked":false,"author_patreon_flair":false,"author_premium":false,"awarders":[],"banned_at_utc":null,"banned_by":null,"body":"They only have a longer lifespan if you ignore that both the membranes and the filters have to replaced very often.\n\nMy BEV doesn't really need much maintenance. Maintenance for a hydrogen car is more involved due to those two very important parts wearing out. Lifespan for a membrane sits at about 2500 hours - and they **degrade** during that time. The cell itself has a lifespan of \\~30,000 hours.\n\n[I found one paper where the power of the stack degraded by 34% after 1,500 hours.](https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0306261914002797)","body_html":"<div class=\"md\"><p>They only have a longer lifespan if you ignore that both the membranes and the filters have to replaced very often.</p>\n\n<p>My BEV doesn't really need much maintenance. Maintenance for a hydrogen car is more involved due to those two very important parts wearing out. Lifespan for a membrane sits at about 2500 hours - and they <strong>degrade</strong> during that time. The cell itself has a lifespan of ~30,000 hours.</p>\n\n<p><a href=\"https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0306261914002797\">I found one paper where the power of the stack degraded by 34% after 1,500 hours.</a></p>\n</div>","can_gild":false,"can_mod_post":false,"collapsed":false,"collapsed_because_crowd_control":null,"collapsed_reason":null,"collapsed_reason_code":null,"comment_type":null,"controversiality":0,"created":1744364757.0,"created_utc":1744364757.0,"distinguished":null,"downs":0,"edited":false,"gilded":0,"gildings":{},"id":"mmjbo8b","is_submitter":false,"likes":null,"link_id":"t3_1jttw8j","locked":false,"mod_note":null,"mod_reason_by":null,"mod_reason_title":null,"mod_reports":[],"name":"t1_mmjbo8b","no_follow":false,"num_reports":null,"parent_id":"t1_mmgg26n","permalink":"/r/askscience/comments/1jttw8j/why_arent_hydrogen_fuel_cell_cars_a_bigger_thing/mmjbo8b/","removal_reason":null,"replies":"","report_reasons":null,"saved":false,"score":1,"score_hidden":true,"send_replies":true,"stickied":false,"subreddit":"askscience","subreddit_id":"t5_2qm4e","subreddit_name_prefixed":"r/askscience","subreddit_type":"public","top_awarded_type":null,"total_awards_received":0,"treatment_tags":[],"unrepliable_reason":null,"ups":1,"user_reports":[]},{"all_awardings":[],"approved_at_utc":null,"approved_by":null,"archived":false,"associated_award":null,"author":"djublonskopf","author_flair_background_color":null,"author_flair_css_class":null,"author_flair_richtext":[],"author_flair_template_id":null,"author_flair_text":null,"author_flair_text_color":null,"author_flair_type":"text","author_fullname":"t2_fwj3x","author_is_blocked":false,"author_patreon_flair":false,"author_premium":false,"awarders":[],"banned_at_utc":null,"banned_by":null,"body":"Additionally, these really big theropod predators may have had *huge* territories per individual, so huge that very few of them were alive on Earth at any given time and they generally kept their distance from one another.\n\nFor *Tyrannosaurus,* it has been estimated that [each *Tyrannosaurus* would have had a territory of ~110km^2](https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.abc8300).\u00a0With Carcharodontosaurus and Spinosaurus being in the same *ballpark*, size-wise, they may have been similarly spaced out, rather than having many large individuals of different species crammed into the same tight space.","body_html":"<div class=\"md\"><p>Additionally, these really big theropod predators may have had <em>huge</em> territories per individual, so huge that very few of them were alive on Earth at any given time and they generally kept their distance from one another.</p>\n\n<p>For <em>Tyrannosaurus,</em> it has been estimated that <a href=\"https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.abc8300\">each <em>Tyrannosaurus</em> would have had a territory of ~110km<sup>2</sup></a>.\u00a0With Carcharodontosaurus and Spinosaurus being in the same <em>ballpark</em>, size-wise, they may have been similarly spaced out, rather than having many large individuals of different species crammed into the same tight space.</p>\n</div>","can_gild":false,"can_mod_post":false,"collapsed":false,"collapsed_because_crowd_control":null,"collapsed_reason":null,"collapsed_reason_code":null,"comment_type":null,"controversiality":0,"created":1744350717.0,"created_utc":1744350717.0,"distinguished":null,"downs":0,"edited":false,"gilded":0,"gildings":{},"id":"mmip6pw","is_submitter":false,"likes":null,"link_id":"t3_1ju6y2d","locked":false,"mod_note":null,"mod_reason_by":null,"mod_reason_title":null,"mod_reports":[],"name":"t1_mmip6pw","no_follow":true,"num_reports":null,"parent_id":"t1_mm45oxy","permalink":"/r/askscience/comments/1ju6y2d/spinosaurus_and_carcharodontosaurus_they_were/mmip6pw/","removal_reason":null,"replies":"","report_reasons":null,"saved":false,"score":1,"score_hidden":false,"send_replies":true,"stickied":false,"subreddit":"askscience","subreddit_id":"t5_2qm4e","subreddit_name_prefixed":"r/askscience","subreddit_type":"public","top_awarded_type":null,"total_awards_received":0,"treatment_tags":[],"unrepliable_reason":null,"ups":1,"user_reports":[]},{"all_awardings":[],"approved_at_utc":null,"approved_by":null,"archived":false,"associated_award":null,"author":"joalheagney","author_flair_background_color":null,"author_flair_css_class":null,"author_flair_richtext":[],"author_flair_template_id":null,"author_flair_text":null,"author_flair_text_color":null,"author_flair_type":"text","author_fullname":"t2_13wake","author_is_blocked":false,"author_patreon_flair":false,"author_premium":false,"awarders":[],"banned_at_utc":null,"banned_by":null,"body":"This. I'm a science/math teacher. I occasionally do a hydrogen balloon demo. One medium sized balloon of hydrogen exploding at atmospheric pressure is enough to shake the concrete, rattle the windows and make the occasional student and/or co-teacher pee themselves. I learnt the very first time I did it, to warn students and co-teachers with hearing aids to turn them off.","body_html":"<div class=\"md\"><p>This. I'm a science/math teacher. I occasionally do a hydrogen balloon demo. One medium sized balloon of hydrogen exploding at atmospheric pressure is enough to shake the concrete, rattle the windows and make the occasional student and/or co-teacher pee themselves. I learnt the very first time I did it, to warn students and co-teachers with hearing aids to turn them off.</p>\n</div>","can_gild":false,"can_mod_post":false,"collapsed":false,"collapsed_because_crowd_control":null,"collapsed_reason":null,"collapsed_reason_code":null,"comment_type":null,"controversiality":0,"created":1744321187.0,"created_utc":1744321187.0,"distinguished":null,"downs":0,"edited":false,"gilded":0,"gildings":{},"id":"mmgmawt","is_submitter":false,"likes":null,"link_id":"t3_1jttw8j","locked":false,"mod_note":null,"mod_reason_by":null,"mod_reason_title":null,"mod_reports":[],"name":"t1_mmgmawt","no_follow":true,"num_reports":null,"parent_id":"t1_mmcp6mx","permalink":"/r/askscience/comments/1jttw8j/why_arent_hydrogen_fuel_cell_cars_a_bigger_thing/mmgmawt/","removal_reason":null,"replies":"","report_reasons":null,"saved":false,"score":1,"score_hidden":true,"send_replies":true,"stickied":false,"subreddit":"askscience","subreddit_id":"t5_2qm4e","subreddit_name_prefixed":"r/askscience","subreddit_type":"public","top_awarded_type":null,"total_awards_received":0,"treatment_tags":[],"unrepliable_reason":null,"ups":1,"user_reports":[]},{"all_awardings":[],"approved_at_utc":null,"approved_by":null,"archived":false,"associated_award":null,"author":"kompootor","author_flair_background_color":null,"author_flair_css_class":null,"author_flair_richtext":[],"author_flair_template_id":null,"author_flair_text":null,"author_flair_text_color":null,"author_flair_type":"text","author_fullname":"t2_t7fy1","author_is_blocked":false,"author_patreon_flair":false,"author_premium":false,"awarders":[],"banned_at_utc":null,"banned_by":null,"body":"An engineering blog post I saw, which I cannot find at the moment, laid out in lay terms how the energy density of different options would be optimized for different vehicle sizes, and small passenger cars were really on the worse end of hydrogen fuel cells (and on conversely the better end of modern battery technology).\n\nThe debate now is on larger vehicles like buses, trucks, light airplanes, which also have the added benefit of dedicated fixed infrastructure (often with existing hydrogen). Two sources on it: one to overview quickly the [pros and cons between fuel cell and battery electric bus public transit by Mass Transit Mag](https://www.masstransitmag.com/bus/vehicles/hybrid-hydrogen-electric-vehicles/article/53095127/navigating-the-zeroemissions-landscape-a-comparative-analysis-of-batteryelectric-and-hydrogen-fuelcell-buses), which seems to favor fuel cells in the near term, and another academic review on comparing those plus natural gas for a bus system on multiple metrics by [Munoz et al 2022](https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0196890422002084), which favors battery in the longer term. Both I think are interesting reads.","body_html":"<div class=\"md\"><p>An engineering blog post I saw, which I cannot find at the moment, laid out in lay terms how the energy density of different options would be optimized for different vehicle sizes, and small passenger cars were really on the worse end of hydrogen fuel cells (and on conversely the better end of modern battery technology).</p>\n\n<p>The debate now is on larger vehicles like buses, trucks, light airplanes, which also have the added benefit of dedicated fixed infrastructure (often with existing hydrogen). Two sources on it: one to overview quickly the <a href=\"https://www.masstransitmag.com/bus/vehicles/hybrid-hydrogen-electric-vehicles/article/53095127/navigating-the-zeroemissions-landscape-a-comparative-analysis-of-batteryelectric-and-hydrogen-fuelcell-buses\">pros and cons between fuel cell and battery electric bus public transit by Mass Transit Mag</a>, which seems to favor fuel cells in the near term, and another academic review on comparing those plus natural gas for a bus system on multiple metrics by <a href=\"https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0196890422002084\">Munoz et al 2022</a>, which favors battery in the longer term. Both I think are interesting reads.</p>\n</div>","can_gild":false,"can_mod_post":false,"collapsed":false,"collapsed_because_crowd_control":null,"collapsed_reason":null,"collapsed_reason_code":null,"comment_type":null,"controversiality":0,"created":1744311054.0,"created_utc":1744311054.0,"distinguished":null,"downs":0,"edited":false,"gilded":0,"gildings":{},"id":"mmfo8ge","is_submitter":false,"likes":null,"link_id":"t3_1jttw8j","locked":false,"mod_note":null,"mod_reason_by":null,"mod_reason_title":null,"mod_reports":[],"name":"t1_mmfo8ge","no_follow":true,"num_reports":null,"parent_id":"t3_1jttw8j","permalink":"/r/askscience/comments/1jttw8j/why_arent_hydrogen_fuel_cell_cars_a_bigger_thing/mmfo8ge/","removal_reason":null,"replies":"","report_reasons":null,"saved":false,"score":1,"score_hidden":true,"send_replies":true,"stickied":false,"subreddit":"askscience","subreddit_id":"t5_2qm4e","subreddit_name_prefixed":"r/askscience","subreddit_type":"public","top_awarded_type":null,"total_awards_received":0,"treatment_tags":[],"unrepliable_reason":null,"ups":1,"user_reports":[]},{"all_awardings":[],"approved_at_utc":null,"approved_by":null,"archived":false,"associated_award":null,"author":"umd-science","author_flair_background_color":"","author_flair_css_class":"bio","author_flair_richtext":[],"author_flair_template_id":null,"author_flair_text":"Infectious Diseases Mathematics AMA","author_flair_text_color":"dark","author_flair_type":"text","author_fullname":"t2_hlw1ipaod","author_is_blocked":false,"author_patreon_flair":false,"author_premium":false,"awarders":[],"banned_at_utc":null,"banned_by":null,"body":"Abba: I totally disagree with that criticism. From my personal experience (as someone who has applied for NIH grants and also served on NIH study panels), the NIH grant process is not bureaucratic at all. It is very rigorous and fair and funds high-quality science and scientists who do amazing work. Because the NIH supports biomedical scientists and mathematical modelers, the United States remains a world leader in biomedical research and discoveries that improve the public health of Americans. It is in our best interest that the NIH continues to get the support it needs to continue to fund high-quality biomedical research in the U.S.","body_html":"<div class=\"md\"><p>Abba: I totally disagree with that criticism. From my personal experience (as someone who has applied for NIH grants and also served on NIH study panels), the NIH grant process is not bureaucratic at all. It is very rigorous and fair and funds high-quality science and scientists who do amazing work. Because the NIH supports biomedical scientists and mathematical modelers, the United States remains a world leader in biomedical research and discoveries that improve the public health of Americans. It is in our best interest that the NIH continues to get the support it needs to continue to fund high-quality biomedical research in the U.S.</p>\n</div>","can_gild":false,"can_mod_post":false,"collapsed":false,"collapsed_because_crowd_control":null,"collapsed_reason":null,"collapsed_reason_code":null,"comment_type":null,"controversiality":0,"created":1744226912.0,"created_utc":1744226912.0,"distinguished":null,"downs":0,"edited":false,"gilded":0,"gildings":{},"id":"mm9jmau","is_submitter":false,"likes":null,"link_id":"t3_1juj6wu","locked":false,"mod_note":null,"mod_reason_by":null,"mod_reason_title":null,"mod_reports":[],"name":"t1_mm9jmau","no_follow":true,"num_reports":null,"parent_id":"t1_mm7c3se","permalink":"/r/askscience/comments/1juj6wu/askscience_ama_series_i_am_a_mathematical/mm9jmau/","removal_reason":null,"replies":"","report_reasons":null,"saved":false,"score":1,"score_hidden":true,"send_replies":true,"stickied":false,"subreddit":"askscience","subreddit_id":"t5_2qm4e","subreddit_name_prefixed":"r/askscience","subreddit_type":"public","top_awarded_type":null,"total_awards_received":0,"treatment_tags":[],"unrepliable_reason":null,"ups":1,"user_reports":[]},{"all_awardings":[],"approved_at_utc":null,"approved_by":null,"archived":false,"associated_award":null,"author":"umd-science","author_flair_background_color":"","author_flair_css_class":"bio","author_flair_richtext":[],"author_flair_template_id":null,"author_flair_text":"Infectious Diseases Mathematics AMA","author_flair_text_color":"dark","author_flair_type":"text","author_fullname":"t2_hlw1ipaod","author_is_blocked":false,"author_patreon_flair":false,"author_premium":false,"awarders":[],"banned_at_utc":null,"banned_by":null,"body":"Alex: I find the ability to write programs, solve equations that arise in my models of biological problems very helpful. There are standard packages for solving certain types of equations, but I find that the models I tend to work on have unusual features that cannot be handled by these packages and I need to develop my own algorithms for solving these models.\n\nAbba: It is very integral. Students of biological sciences should be well-versed in computational and data analysis tools needed for studying the biological systems of interest. \n\nSalihu: Bioinformatics and computer science are now key to biology. Analyzing large-scale data such as genomics, protein structures or disease patterns requires coding, algorithms and data science tools.","body_html":"<div class=\"md\"><p>Alex: I find the ability to write programs, solve equations that arise in my models of biological problems very helpful. There are standard packages for solving certain types of equations, but I find that the models I tend to work on have unusual features that cannot be handled by these packages and I need to develop my own algorithms for solving these models.</p>\n\n<p>Abba: It is very integral. Students of biological sciences should be well-versed in computational and data analysis tools needed for studying the biological systems of interest. </p>\n\n<p>Salihu: Bioinformatics and computer science are now key to biology. Analyzing large-scale data such as genomics, protein structures or disease patterns requires coding, algorithms and data science tools.</p>\n</div>","can_gild":false,"can_mod_post":false,"collapsed":false,"collapsed_because_crowd_control":null,"collapsed_reason":null,"collapsed_reason_code":null,"comment_type":null,"controversiality":0,"created":1744226182.0,"created_utc":1744226182.0,"distinguished":null,"downs":0,"edited":false,"gilded":0,"gildings":{},"id":"mm9h5a9","is_submitter":false,"likes":null,"link_id":"t3_1juj6wu","locked":false,"mod_note":null,"mod_reason_by":null,"mod_reason_title":null,"mod_reports":[],"name":"t1_mm9h5a9","no_follow":true,"num_reports":null,"parent_id":"t1_mm7q44t","permalink":"/r/askscience/comments/1juj6wu/askscience_ama_series_i_am_a_mathematical/mm9h5a9/","removal_reason":null,"replies":"","report_reasons":null,"saved":false,"score":1,"score_hidden":true,"send_replies":true,"stickied":false,"subreddit":"askscience","subreddit_id":"t5_2qm4e","subreddit_name_prefixed":"r/askscience","subreddit_type":"public","top_awarded_type":null,"total_awards_received":0,"treatment_tags":[],"unrepliable_reason":null,"ups":1,"user_reports":[]},{"all_awardings":[],"approved_at_utc":null,"approved_by":null,"archived":false,"associated_award":null,"author":"umd-science","author_flair_background_color":"","author_flair_css_class":"bio","author_flair_richtext":[],"author_flair_template_id":null,"author_flair_text":"Infectious Diseases Mathematics AMA","author_flair_text_color":"dark","author_flair_type":"text","author_fullname":"t2_hlw1ipaod","author_is_blocked":false,"author_patreon_flair":false,"author_premium":false,"awarders":[],"banned_at_utc":null,"banned_by":null,"body":"Abba: That mathematics doesn't always have all the answers. Models are built based on well-thought-out assumptions, and predictions are subject to all sorts of uncertainties in the data, the assumptions, etc. It's very difficult to communicate these facts to public health professionals who are expecting actionable, day-to-day predictions. One of the things that seems to be missing in the modeling/science curriculum in general is how to effectively communicate our results and outputs of our modeling work to the general population. COVID-19 has highlighted the need for incorporating effective communications into science curricula in general\u2014modeling of infectious diseases in particular.","body_html":"<div class=\"md\"><p>Abba: That mathematics doesn't always have all the answers. Models are built based on well-thought-out assumptions, and predictions are subject to all sorts of uncertainties in the data, the assumptions, etc. It's very difficult to communicate these facts to public health professionals who are expecting actionable, day-to-day predictions. One of the things that seems to be missing in the modeling/science curriculum in general is how to effectively communicate our results and outputs of our modeling work to the general population. COVID-19 has highlighted the need for incorporating effective communications into science curricula in general\u2014modeling of infectious diseases in particular.</p>\n</div>","can_gild":false,"can_mod_post":false,"collapsed":false,"collapsed_because_crowd_control":null,"collapsed_reason":null,"collapsed_reason_code":null,"comment_type":null,"controversiality":0,"created":1744225135.0,"created_utc":1744225135.0,"distinguished":null,"downs":0,"edited":false,"gilded":0,"gildings":{},"id":"mm9dmck","is_submitter":false,"likes":null,"link_id":"t3_1juj6wu","locked":false,"mod_note":null,"mod_reason_by":null,"mod_reason_title":null,"mod_reports":[],"name":"t1_mm9dmck","no_follow":true,"num_reports":null,"parent_id":"t1_mm7bpsu","permalink":"/r/askscience/comments/1juj6wu/askscience_ama_series_i_am_a_mathematical/mm9dmck/","removal_reason":null,"replies":"","report_reasons":null,"saved":false,"score":1,"score_hidden":true,"send_replies":true,"stickied":false,"subreddit":"askscience","subreddit_id":"t5_2qm4e","subreddit_name_prefixed":"r/askscience","subreddit_type":"public","top_awarded_type":null,"total_awards_received":0,"treatment_tags":[],"unrepliable_reason":null,"ups":1,"user_reports":[]},{"all_awardings":[],"approved_at_utc":null,"approved_by":null,"archived":false,"associated_award":null,"author":"rootofallworlds","author_flair_background_color":null,"author_flair_css_class":null,"author_flair_richtext":[],"author_flair_template_id":null,"author_flair_text":null,"author_flair_text_color":null,"author_flair_type":"text","author_fullname":"t2_tb44g7jq","author_is_blocked":false,"author_patreon_flair":false,"author_premium":false,"awarders":[],"banned_at_utc":null,"banned_by":null,"body":"In my view this is an economics and politics question, not a science one.\n\nMuch of the world already had an electricity distribution network when cars like the Tesla Roadster, with a domestic plug socket sufficient to refuel an EV albeit slowly. There's no remotely comparable hydrogen distribution network.","body_html":"<div class=\"md\"><p>In my view this is an economics and politics question, not a science one.</p>\n\n<p>Much of the world already had an electricity distribution network when cars like the Tesla Roadster, with a domestic plug socket sufficient to refuel an EV albeit slowly. There's no remotely comparable hydrogen distribution network.</p>\n</div>","can_gild":false,"can_mod_post":false,"collapsed":false,"collapsed_because_crowd_control":null,"collapsed_reason":null,"collapsed_reason_code":null,"comment_type":null,"controversiality":0,"created":1744224913.0,"created_utc":1744224913.0,"distinguished":null,"downs":0,"edited":false,"gilded":0,"gildings":{},"id":"mm9cv27","is_submitter":false,"likes":null,"link_id":"t3_1jttw8j","locked":false,"mod_note":null,"mod_reason_by":null,"mod_reason_title":null,"mod_reports":[],"name":"t1_mm9cv27","no_follow":true,"num_reports":null,"parent_id":"t3_1jttw8j","permalink":"/r/askscience/comments/1jttw8j/why_arent_hydrogen_fuel_cell_cars_a_bigger_thing/mm9cv27/","removal_reason":null,"replies":"","report_reasons":null,"saved":false,"score":1,"score_hidden":true,"send_replies":true,"stickied":false,"subreddit":"askscience","subreddit_id":"t5_2qm4e","subreddit_name_prefixed":"r/askscience","subreddit_type":"public","top_awarded_type":null,"total_awards_received":0,"treatment_tags":[],"unrepliable_reason":null,"ups":1,"user_reports":[]}],"metadata":{"query_str":"'science'","lang_id":"regex"},"error":null}